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Alaska

Alaska (/əˈlæskə/ ^ⓘ ə-LASS-kə) is a non-contiguous U.S. state on the northwest extremity of North America. Part of the Western United States region, it is one of the two non-contiguous U.S. states, alongside Hawaii. Alaska is also considered to be the northernmost, westernmost, and easternmost (the Aleutian Islands cross the 180th meridian into the eastern hemisphere) state in the United States. It borders the Canadian territory of Yukon and the province of British Columbia to the east. It shares a western maritime border, in the Bering Strait, with Russia’s Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. The Chukchi and Beaufort Seas of the Arctic Ocean lie to the north, and the Pacific Ocean lies to the south. Technically, it is a semi-exclave of the U.S., and is the largest exclave in the world.

Alaska is the largest U.S. state by area, comprising more total area than the following three largest states of Texas, California, and Montana combined, and is the seventh-largest subnational division in the world. It is the third-least populous and most sparsely populated U.S. state; however, with a population of 740,133 as of 2024, it is the most populous territory in North America located mostly north of the 60th parallel, with more than quadruple the combined populations of Northern Canada and Greenland.^[6] The state contains the four largest cities in the United States by area, including the state capital of Juneau. The state’s most populous city is Anchorage, and approximately half of Alaska’s residents live within its metropolitan area.

Indigenous people have lived in Alaska for thousands of years, and it is widely believed that the region served as the entry point for the initial settlement of North America by way of the Bering land bridge. The Russian Empire was the first to actively colonize the area beginning in the 18th century, eventually establishing Russian America, which spanned most of the current state and promoted and maintained a native Alaskan Creole population.^[7] The expense and logistical difficulty of maintaining this distant possession prompted its sale to the U.S. in 1867 for US$7.2 million (equivalent to $162 million in 2024). The area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11, 1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U.S. on January 3, 1959.^[8]

Abundant natural resources have enabled Alaska— with one of the smallest state economies—to have one of the highest per capita incomes, with commercial fishing, and the extraction of natural gas and oil, dominating Alaska’s economy. U.S. Armed Forces bases and tourism also contribute to the economy; more than half of the state is federally-owned land containing national forests, national parks, and wildlife refuges. It is among the most irreligious states and one of the first to legalize recreational marijuana. The Indigenous population of Alaska is proportionally the second highest of any U.S. state, at over 15 percent, after only Hawaii.^[9]

Etymology

The name “Alaska” (Russian: Аля́ска, romanized: Aljáska) was introduced during the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the Alaska Peninsula. It was derived from an Aleut-language idiom, alaxsxaq, meaning “the mainland” or, more literally, “the object towards which the action of the sea is directed”.^[10]^[11]^[12]

History

Main articles: Prehistory of Alaska and History of Alaska

Pre-colonization

Main article: Alaska Natives

Numerous indigenous peoples occupied Alaska for thousands of years before the arrival of European peoples to the area. Linguistic and DNA studies done here have provided evidence for the settlement of North America by way of the Bering land bridge.^[13]^[14] At the Upward Sun River site in the Tanana Valley in Alaska, remains of a six-week-old infant were found. The baby’s DNA showed that she belonged to a population that was genetically separate from other native groups present elsewhere in the New World at the end of the Pleistocene. Ben Potter, the University of Alaska Fairbanks archaeologist who unearthed the remains at the Upward Sun River site in 2013, named this new group Ancient Beringian.^[15]

The Tlingit people developed a society with a matrilineal kinship system of property inheritance and descent in what is today Southeast Alaska, along with parts of British Columbia and the Yukon. Also in Southeast were the Haida, now well known for their unique arts. The Tsimshian people came to Alaska from British Columbia in 1887, when President Grover Cleveland, and later the U.S. Congress, granted them permission to settle on Annette Island and found the town of Metlakatla, Alaska. All three of these peoples, as well as other indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, experienced smallpox outbreaks from the late 18th through the mid-19th century, with the most devastating epidemics occurring in the 1830s and 1860s, resulting in high fatalities and social disruption.^[16]

Colonization

Main articles: Russian colonization of North America, Alaskan Creole people, Department of Alaska, District of Alaska, Fairbanks Gold Rush, Kobuk River Stampede, Nome Gold Rush, and Alaska Purchase

Some researchers believe the first Russian settlement in Alaska was established in the 17th century.^[17] According to this hypothesis, in 1648 several koches of Semyon Dezhnyov‘s expedition came ashore in Alaska by storm and founded this settlement. This hypothesis is based on the testimony of Chukchi geographer Nikolai Daurkin, who had visited Alaska in 1764–1765 and who had reported on a village on the Kheuveren River, populated by “bearded men” who “pray to the icons“. Some modern researchers associate Kheuveren with Koyuk River.^[18]

The first European vessel to reach Alaska is generally held to be the St. Gabriel under the authority of the surveyor M. S. Gvozdev and assistant navigator I. Fyodorov on August 21, 1732, during an expedition of Siberian Cossack A. F. Shestakov and Russian explorer Dmitry Pavlutsky (1729–1735).^[19] Another European contact with Alaska occurred in 1741, when Vitus Bering led an expedition for the Russian Navy aboard the St. Peter. After his crew returned to Russia with sea otter pelts judged to be the finest fur in the world, small associations of fur traders began to sail from the shores of Siberia toward the Aleutian Islands. The first permanent European settlement was founded in 1784.

Between 1774 and 1800, Spain sent several expeditions to Alaska to assert its claim over the Pacific Northwest. In 1789, a Spanish settlement and fort were built in Nootka Sound. These expeditions gave names to places such as Valdez, Bucareli Sound, and Cordova. Later, the Russian-American Company carried out an expanded colonization program during the early-to-mid-19th century. Sitka, renamed New Archangel from 1804 to 1867, on Baranof Island in the Alexander Archipelago in what is now Southeast Alaska, became the capital of Russian America. It remained the capital after the colony was transferred to the United States. The Russians never fully colonized Alaska, and the colony was never very profitable. Evidence of Russian settlement in names and churches survives throughout southeastern Alaska.^[20]

In 1867, William H. Seward, the United States Secretary of State under President Andrew Johnson, negotiated the Alaska Purchase (referred to pejoratively as Seward’s Folly) with the Russians for $7.2 million.^[21] Russia’s contemporary ruler Tsar Alexander II, the Emperor of the Russian Empire, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland, also planned the sale;^[22] the purchase was made on March 30, 1867. Six months later the commissioners arrived in Sitka and the formal transfer was arranged; the formal flag-raising took place at Fort Sitka on October 18, 1867. In the ceremony, 250 uniformed U.S. soldiers marched to the governor’s house at “Castle Hill”, where the Russian troops lowered the Russian flag and the U.S. flag was raised. This event is celebrated as Alaska Day, a legal holiday on October 18.

Alaska was loosely governed by the military initially and was administered as a district starting in 1884, with a governor appointed by the United States president. A federal district court was headquartered in Sitka. For most of Alaska’s first decade under the United States flag, Sitka was the only community inhabited by American settlers. They organized a “provisional city government”, which was Alaska’s first municipal government, but not in a legal sense.^[23] Legislation allowing Alaskan communities to legally incorporate as cities did not come about until 1900, and home rule for cities was extremely limited or unavailable until statehood took effect in 1959.

U.S. territorial incorporation

Main articles: Organic act § List of organic acts, and Territory of Alaska

Starting in the 1890s and stretching in some places to the early 1910s, gold rushes in Alaska and the nearby Yukon Territory brought thousands of miners and settlers to Alaska. From 1879 to 1920, Alaska produced a cumulative total of over $460,000,000 ($6,691,927,500 inflation-adjusted) of mineral production.^[24] Alaska was officially incorporated as an organized territory in 1912. Alaska’s capital, which had been in Sitka until 1906, was moved north to Juneau. Construction of the Alaska Governor’s Mansion began that same year. European immigrants from Norway and Sweden also settled in southeast Alaska, where they entered the fishing and logging industries.

During World War II, the Aleutian Islands Campaign focused on Attu, Agattu and Kiska, all of which were occupied by the Empire of Japan.^[a] During the Japanese occupation, an American civilian and two United States Navy personnel were killed at Attu and Kiska respectively, and nearly a total of 50 Aleut civilians and eight sailors were interned in Japan. About half of the Aleuts died during the period of internment.^[25] Unalaska/Dutch Harbor and Adak became significant bases for the United States Army, United States Army Air Forces and United States Navy. The United States Lend-Lease program involved flying American warplanes through Canada to Fairbanks and then Nome; Soviet pilots took possession of these aircraft, ferrying them to fight the German invasion of the Soviet Union. The construction of military bases contributed to the population growth of some Alaskan cities.

Statehood

Statehood for Alaska was an important cause of James Wickersham early in his tenure as a congressional delegate.^[26] Decades later, the statehood movement gained its first real momentum following a territorial referendum in 1946. The Alaska Statehood Committee and Alaska’s Constitutional Convention would soon follow. Statehood supporters also found themselves fighting major battles against political foes, mostly in the U.S. Congress but also within Alaska. Statehood was approved by the U.S. Congress on July 7, 1958; Alaska was officially proclaimed a state on January 3, 1959.^[27]

Good Friday earthquake

Main article: 1964 Alaska earthquake

On March 27, 1964, the massive Good Friday earthquake killed 133 people and destroyed several villages and portions of large coastal communities, mainly by the resultant tsunamis and landslides. It was the fourth-most-powerful earthquake in recorded history, with a moment magnitude of 9.2 (more than a thousand times as powerful as the 1989 San Francisco earthquake).^[28] The time of day (5:36 pm), time of year (spring) and location of the epicenter were all cited as factors in potentially sparing thousands of lives, particularly in Anchorage. Alaska suffered a more severe megathrust earthquake on July 11, 1585, estimated at magnitude 9.25, which remains the most powerful earthquake recorded in North American history, and the second most powerful earthquake recorded in world history.^[29]

The Good Friday earthquake lasted 4 minutes and 38 seconds. Six hundred miles (970 km) of fault ruptured at once and moved up to 60 ft (18 m), releasing about 500 years of stress buildup. Soil liquefaction, fissures, landslides, and other ground failures caused major structural damage in several communities and much damage to property. Anchorage sustained great destruction or damage to many inadequately earthquake-engineered houses, buildings, and infrastructure (paved streets, sidewalks, water and sewer mains, electrical systems, and other human-made equipment), particularly in the several landslide zones along Knik Arm. Two hundred miles (320 km) southwest, some areas near Kodiak were permanently raised by 30 feet (9 m). Southeast of Anchorage, areas around the head of Turnagain Arm near Girdwood and Portage dropped as much as 8 feet (2.4 m), requiring reconstruction and fill to raise the Seward Highway above the new high tide mark.^[30]

In Prince William Sound, Port Valdez suffered a massive underwater landslide, resulting in the deaths of 32 people between the collapse of the Valdez city harbor and docks, and inside the ship that was docked there at the time. Nearby, a 27-foot (8.2 m) tsunami destroyed the village of Chenega, killing 23 of the 68 people who lived there; survivors out-ran the wave, climbing to high ground. Post-quake tsunamis severely affected Whittier, Seward, Kodiak, and other Alaskan communities, as well as people and property in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California.^[31] Tsunamis also caused damage in Hawaii and Japan. Evidence of motion directly related to the earthquake was also reported from Florida and Texas.

Alaska had never experienced a major disaster in a highly populated area before and had very limited resources for dealing with the effects of such an event. In Anchorage, at the urging of geologist Lidia Selkregg, the City of Anchorage and the Alaska State Housing Authority appointed a team of 40 scientists, including geologists, soil scientists, and engineers, to assess the damage done by the earthquake to the city.^[32] The team, called the Engineering and Geological Evaluation Group, was headed by Ruth A. M. Schmidt, a geology professor at the University of Alaska Anchorage. The team of scientists came into conflict with local developers and downtown business owners who wanted to immediately rebuild; the scientists wanted to identify future dangers to ensure that the rebuilt infrastructure would be safe.^[33] The team produced a report on May 8, 1964, just a little more than a month after the earthquake.^[32]^[34]

The United States military, which has a large active presence in Alaska, also stepped in to assist within moments of the end of the quake. The U.S. Army rapidly re-established communications with the lower 48 states, deployed troops to assist the citizens of Anchorage, and dispatched a convoy to Valdez.^[35] On the advice of military and civilian leaders, President Lyndon B. Johnson declared all of Alaska a major disaster area the day after the quake. The U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard deployed ships to isolated coastal communities to assist with immediate needs. Bad weather and poor visibility hampered air rescue and observation efforts the day after the quake, but on Sunday the 29th the situation improved and rescue helicopters and observation aircraft were deployed.^[35] A military airlift immediately began shipping relief supplies to Alaska, eventually delivering 2,570,000 pounds (1,170,000 kg) of food and other supplies.^[36] Broadcast journalist, Genie Chance, assisted in recovery and relief efforts, staying on the KENI air waves over Anchorage for more than 24 continuous hours as the voice of calm from her temporary post within the Anchorage Public Safety Building.^[37] She was effectively designated as the public safety officer by the city’s police chief.^[37] Chance provided breaking news of the catastrophic events that continued to develop following the magnitude 9.2 earthquake, and she served as the voice of the public safety office, coordinating response efforts, connecting available resources to needs around the community, disseminating information about shelters and prepared food rations, passing messages of well-being between loved ones, and helping to reunite families.^[38]

In the longer term, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers led the effort to rebuild roads, clear debris, and establish new townsites for communities that had been completely destroyed, at a cost of $110 million.^[36] The West Coast and Alaska Tsunami Warning Center was formed as a direct response to the disaster. Federal disaster relief funds paid for reconstruction as well as financially supporting the devastated infrastructure of Alaska’s government, spending hundreds of millions of dollars that helped keep Alaska financially solvent until the discovery of massive oil deposits at Prudhoe Bay. At the order of the U.S. Defense Department, the Alaska National Guard founded the Alaska Division of Emergency Services to respond to any future disasters.^[35]

Oil boom

The 1968 discovery of oil at Prudhoe Bay and the 1977 completion of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System led to an oil boom. Royalty revenues from oil have funded large state budgets from 1980 onward.

Oil pooled on rocks on the shore of Prince William Sound after the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill.

Oil production was not the only economic value of Alaska’s land. In the second half of the 20th century, Alaska discovered tourism as an important source of revenue. Tourism became popular after World War II when military personnel stationed in the region returned home praising its natural splendor. The Alcan Highway, built during the war, and the Alaska Marine Highway System, completed in 1963, made the state more accessible than before. Tourism has become increasingly important in Alaska, and today over 1.4 million people visit the state each year.^[39]

With tourism more vital to the economy, environmentalism also rose in importance. The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA) of 1980 added 53.7 million acres (217,000 km²) to the National Wildlife Refuge system, parts of 25 rivers to the National Wild and Scenic Rivers system, 3.3 million acres (13,000 km²) to National Forest lands, and 43.6 million acres (176,000 km²) to National Park land. Because of the Act, Alaska now contains two-thirds of all American national parklands. Today, more than half of Alaskan land is owned by the Federal Government.^[40]

In 1989, the Exxon Valdez hit a reef in the Prince William Sound, spilling more than 11 million gallons (42 megalitres) of crude oil over 1,100 miles (1,800 km) of coastline. Today, the battle between philosophies of development and conservation is seen in the contentious debate over oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and the proposed Pebble Mine.^[41]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Alaska

Located at the northwest corner of North America, Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States, but also has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the Eastern Hemisphere.^[42] Alaska is the only non-contiguous U.S. state on continental North America; about 500 miles (800 km) of Canadian territory consisting of British Columbia (in Canada) separates Alaska from Washington. It is technically part of the continental U.S., but is not usually included in the colloquial use of the term; Alaska is not part of the contiguous U.S., often called “the Lower 48“. The capital city, Juneau, is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system. The largest lake in Alaska is Lake Illiamna.

The state is bordered by Canada’s Yukon and British Columbia to the east (making it the only state to border only a Canadian territory); the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean to the south and southwest; the Bering Sea, Bering Strait, and Chukchi Sea to the west; and the Arctic Ocean to the north. Alaska’s territorial waters touch Russia’s territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island and Alaskan Little Diomede Island are only 3 miles (4.8 km) apart. Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U.S. states combined.^[43]

At 663,268 square miles (1,717,856 km²) in total area, Alaska is by far the largest state in the United States. Alaska is more than twice the size of the second-largest U.S. state (Texas), and it is larger than the next three largest states (Texas, California, and Montana) combined. Alaska is the seventh largest subnational division in the world. If it was an independent nation, it would be the 18th largest country in the world; almost the same size as Iran.^[44]

With its myriad islands, Alaska has nearly 34,000 miles (55,000 km) of tidal shoreline. The Aleutian Islands chain extends west from the southern tip of the Alaska Peninsula. Many active volcanoes are found in the Aleutians and in coastal regions. Unimak Island, for example, is home to Mount Shishaldin, which is an occasionally smoldering volcano that rises to 10,000 feet (3,000 m) above the North Pacific. The chain of volcanoes extends to Mount Spurr, west of Anchorage on the mainland. Geologists have identified Alaska as part of Wrangellia, a large region consisting of multiple states and Canadian provinces in the Pacific Northwest, which is actively undergoing continent building.^[45]

One of the world’s largest tides occurs in Turnagain Arm, just south of Anchorage, where tidal differences can be more than 35 feet (10.7 m).^[46]

Alaska has more than 409,000 natural lakes at least one hectare or bigger.^[47] Marshlands and wetland permafrost cover 188,320 square miles (487,700 km²) (mostly in northern, western and southwest flatlands). Glacier ice covers about 28,957 square miles (75,000 km²) of Alaska.^[48] The Bering Glacier is the largest glacier in North America, covering 2,008 square miles (5,200 km²) alone.^[49]

Regions

There are no officially defined borders demarcating the various regions of Alaska, however there are five/six regions that the state is most commonly broken up into:

Southcentral

Main article: Southcentral Alaska

The most populous region of Alaska contains Anchorage, the Matanuska-Susitna Valley and the Kenai Peninsula. Rural, mostly unpopulated areas south of the Alaska Range and west of the Wrangell Mountains also fall within the definition of South Central, as do the Prince William Sound area and the communities of Cordova and Valdez.^[50]

Southeast

Main article: Southeast Alaska

Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the contiguous states. As such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase. The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest, the largest national forest in the United States. It contains the state capital Juneau, the former capital Sitka, and Ketchikan, at one time Alaska’s largest city.^[51] The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital surface transportation link throughout the area and country, as only three communities (Haines, Hyder and Skagway) enjoy direct connections to the contiguous North American road system.^[52]

Interior

Main article: Interior Alaska

The Interior is the largest region of Alaska; much of it is uninhabited wilderness. Fairbanks is the only large city in the region. Denali National Park and Preserve is located here. Denali, federally designated as Mount McKinley, is the highest mountain in North America and is also located here.

North Slope

Main article: Alaska North Slope

The North Slope is mostly tundra peppered with small villages. The area is known for its massive reserves of crude oil and contains both the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska and the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field.^[53] The city of Utqiaġvik, formerly known as Barrow, is the northernmost city in the United States and is located here. The Northwest Arctic area, anchored by Kotzebue and also containing the Kobuk River valley, is often considered part of this region. The respective Inupiat of the North Slope and of the Northwest Arctic seldom consider themselves to be one people.^[54]

Southwest

Main article: Southwest Alaska

Southwest Alaska is a sparsely inhabited region stretching some 500 miles (800 km) inland from the Bering Sea. Most of the population lives along the coast. Kodiak Island is also located in the Southwest. The massive Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta, one of the largest river deltas in the world, is here. Portions of the Alaska Peninsula are considered part of the Southwest, with the Aleutian Islands often (but not always) being grouped in as well.^{[citation needed]}

Aleutian Islands

Main article: Aleutian Islands

While primarily part of Southwest Alaska when grouped economically, the Aleutian islands are sometimes recognized as an alternate group from the rest of the region due to the geographic separation from the continent. More than 300 small volcanic islands make up this chain, which stretches more than 1,200 miles (1,900 km) into the Pacific Ocean. Some of these islands fall in the Eastern Hemisphere, but the International Date Line was drawn west of 180° to keep the whole state, and thus the entire North American continent, within the same legal day. Two of the islands, Attu and Kiska, were occupied by Japanese forces during World War II.^{[citation needed]}

Land ownership

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According to an October 1998 report by the United States Bureau of Land Management, approximately 65% of Alaska is owned and managed by the U.S. federal government as public lands, including a multitude of national forests, national parks, and national wildlife refuges.^[55] Of these, the Bureau of Land Management manages 87 million acres (35 million hectares), or 23.8% of the state. The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. It is the world’s largest wildlife refuge, comprising 16 million acres (6.5 million hectares).

Of the remaining land area, the state of Alaska owns 101 million acres (41 million hectares), its entitlement under the Alaska Statehood Act. A portion of that acreage is occasionally ceded to the organized boroughs presented above, under the statutory provisions pertaining to newly formed boroughs. Smaller portions are set aside for rural subdivisions and other homesteading-related opportunities. These are not very popular due to the often remote and roadless locations. The University of Alaska, as a land grant university, also owns substantial acreage which it manages independently.

Another 44 million acres (18 million hectares) are owned by 12 regional, and scores of local, Native corporations created under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) of 1971. Regional Native corporation Doyon, Limited often promotes itself as the largest private landowner in Alaska in advertisements and other communications. Provisions of ANCSA allowing the corporations’ land holdings to be sold on the open market starting in 1991 were repealed before they could take effect. Effectively, the corporations hold title (including subsurface title in many cases, a privilege denied to individual Alaskans) but cannot sell the land. Individual Native allotments are sold on the open market.

Various private interests own the remaining land, totaling about one percent of the state. Alaska is, by a large margin, the state with the smallest percentage of private land ownership when Native corporation holdings are excluded.

Alaska Heritage Resources Survey

The Alaska Heritage Resources Survey (AHRS) is a restricted inventory of all reported historic and prehistoric sites within the U.S. state of Alaska; it is maintained by the Office of History and Archaeology. The survey’s inventory of cultural resources includes objects, structures, buildings, sites, districts, and travel ways, with a general provision that they are more than fifty years old. As of 31 January 2012, more than 35,000 sites have been reported.^[56]

Cities, towns and boroughs

Further information: List of cities in Alaska and List of boroughs and census areas in Alaska

Utqiaġvik (Browerville neighborhood near Eben Hopson Middle School shown), known colloquially for many years by the nickname “Top of the World”, is the northernmost city in the United States.

Cordova, built in the early 20th century to support the Kennecott Mines and the Copper River and Northwestern Railway, has been preserved as a fishing community since their closure.

Alaska is not divided into counties, like Louisiana‘s parishes and unlike most of the other U.S. states, but it is divided into boroughs.^[57] Delegates to the Alaska Constitutional Convention wanted to avoid the pitfalls of the traditional county system and adopted their own unique model.^[58] Many of the more densely populated parts of the state are part of Alaska’s 16 boroughs, which function somewhat similarly to counties in other states. Unlike county-equivalents in the other states, the boroughs do not cover the state’s entire land area. The area not part of any borough is referred to as the Unorganized Borough.

The Unorganized Borough has no government of its own, but the U.S. Census Bureau in cooperation with the state divided the Unorganized Borough into 11 census areas solely for the purposes of statistical analysis and presentation. A recording district is a mechanism for management of the public record in Alaska. The state is divided into 34 recording districts which are centrally administered under a state recorder. All recording districts use the same acceptance criteria, fee schedule, etc., for accepting documents into the public record.

Whereas many U.S. states use a three-tiered system of decentralization—state/county/township—most of Alaska uses only two tiers—state/borough. Owing to the low population density, most of the land is located in the Unorganized Borough. As the name implies, it has no intermediate borough government but is administered directly by the state government. In 2000, 57.71% of Alaska’s area has this status, with 13.05% of the population.^[59]

Anchorage merged the city government with the Greater Anchorage Area Borough in 1975 to form the Municipality of Anchorage, containing the city proper and the communities of Eagle River, Chugiak, Peters Creek, Girdwood, Bird, and Indian. Fairbanks has a separate borough (the Fairbanks North Star Borough) and municipality (the City of Fairbanks).

The state’s most populous city is Anchorage, home to 291,247 people in 2020.^[60] The richest location in Alaska by per capita income is Denali ($42,245). Yakutat City, Sitka, Juneau, and Anchorage are the four largest cities in the U.S. by area.

Cities and census-designated places (by population)

As reflected in the 2020 United States census, Alaska has a total of 355 incorporated cities and census-designated places (CDPs).^[61] The tally of cities includes four unified municipalities, essentially the equivalent of a consolidated city–county. The majority of these communities are located in the rural expanse of Alaska known as “The Bush” and are unconnected to that contiguous North American road network. The table at the bottom of this section lists the 100 largest cities and census-designated places in Alaska, in population order.

Of Alaska’s 2020 U.S. census population figure of 733,391, 16,655 people, or 2.27% of the population, did not live in an incorporated city or census-designated place.^[60] Approximately three-quarters of that figure were people who live in urban and suburban neighborhoods on the outskirts of the city limits of Ketchikan, Kodiak, Palmer and Wasilla. CDPs have not been established for these areas by the United States Census Bureau, except that seven CDPs were established for the Ketchikan-area neighborhoods in the 1980 census (Clover Pass, Herring Cove, Ketchikan East, Mountain Point, Alaska Route 7, Pennock Island and Saxman East), but have not been used since. The remaining population was scattered throughout Alaska, both within organized boroughs and in the Unorganized Borough, in largely remote areas.^{[citation needed]}

No.Community nameType2020 Pop.^[60]1AnchorageCity291,2472FairbanksCity32,5153JuneauCity32,2554Knik-FairviewCDP19,2975BadgerCDP19,0316CollegeCDP11,3327North LakesCDP9,4508Meadow LakesCDP9,1979WasillaCity9,05410TanainaCDP8,81711KalifornskyCDP8,48712SitkaCity8,45813KetchikanCity8,19214KenaiCity7,42415Steele CreekCDP6,43716BethelCity6,32517Chena RidgeCDP6,01518SterlingCDP5,91819PalmerCity5,88820GatewayCDP5,74821KodiakCity5,58122HomerCity5,52223South LakesCDP5,22924FishhookCDP5,04825UtqiaġvikCity4,92726Farmers LoopCDP4,70427NikiskiCDP4,45628SoldotnaCity4,34229UnalaskaCity4,25430Mill BayCDP4,21631ValdezCity3,98532Big LakeCDP3,83333NomeCity3,69934ButteCDP3,58935GoldstreamCDP3,29936KotzebueCity3,10237PetersburgCity3,04338Farm LoopCDP2,74739SewardCity2,71740Eielson AFBCDP2,61041CordovaCity2,60942EsterCDP2,41643DeltanaCDP2,35944DillinghamCity2,24945Fritz CreekCDP2,24846North PoleCity2,24347WillowCDP2,19648RidgewayCDP2,13649Bear CreekCDP2,12950WrangellCity2,127

No.Community nameType2020 Pop.51Anchor PointCDP2,10552HoustonCity1,97553Point MacKenzieCDP1,85254Kodiak StationCDP1,67355HainesCDP1,65756AkutanCity1,58957Susitna NorthCDP1,56458Lazy MountainCDP1,50659CohoeCDP1,47160MetlakatlaCDP1,45461Hooper BayCity1,37562Diamond RidgeCDP1,33063Prudhoe BayCDP1,31064TokCDP1,24365SkagwayCDP1,16466Funny RiverCDP1,10367SalamatofCDP1,07868TalkeetnaCDP1,05569Sutton-AlpineCDP1,03870CraigCity1,03671Buffalo SoapstoneCDP1,02172SalchaCDP97773HealyCDP96674ChevakCity95175HoonahCity93176Delta JunctionCity91877NinilchikCDP84578SavoongaCity83579Point HopeCity83080EmmonakCity82581TogiakCity81782KwethlukCity81283SelawikCity80984Knik RiverCDP79285QuinhagakCity77686UnalakleetCity76587King CoveCity75788AlakanukCity75689Womens BayCDP74390KlawockCity72091Happy ValleyCDP71392KipnukCDP70493NoorvikCity69494AkiachakCDP67795Toksook BayCity65896YakutatCDP65797GustavusCDP655KotlikCDP99Two RiversCDP650100Fox RiverCDP644

Climate

Main article: Climate of Alaska

Alaska is the coldest state in the United States.^[63] The climate in the south and southeastern Alaska is a mid-latitude oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb), and a subarctic oceanic climate (Köppen Cfc) in the northern parts, with cool summers and relatively mild winters. On an annual basis, the southeast is both the wettest and warmest part of Alaska with milder temperatures in the winter and high precipitation throughout the year. Juneau averages over 50 in (130 cm) of precipitation a year, and Ketchikan averages over 150 in (380 cm).^[64] This is also the only region in Alaska in which the average daytime high temperature is above freezing during the winter months.

The climate of Anchorage and south central Alaska is mild by Alaskan standards due to the region’s proximity to the seacoast. While the area gets less rain than southeast Alaska, it gets more snow, and days tend to be clearer. On average, Anchorage receives 16 in (41 cm) of precipitation a year, with around 75 in (190 cm) of snow, although there are areas in the south central which receive far more snow. It is a subarctic climate (Köppen: Dfc) due to its brief, cool summers.

The climate of western Alaska is determined in large part by the Bering Sea and the Gulf of Alaska. It is a subarctic oceanic climate in the southwest and a continental subarctic climate farther north. The temperature is somewhat moderate considering how far north the area is. This region has a tremendous amount of variety in precipitation. An area stretching from the northern side of the Seward Peninsula to the Kobuk River valley (i.e., the region around Kotzebue Sound) is technically a desert, with portions receiving less than 10 in (25 cm) of precipitation annually. On the other extreme, some locations between Dillingham and Bethel average around 100 in (250 cm) of precipitation.^[65]

The climate of the interior of Alaska is subarctic and is a classic example of a continental subarctic climate, except in a few valleys where the climate approaches humid continental (Köppen: Dfb). Some of the highest and lowest temperatures in Alaska occur around the area near Fairbanks. Summers are warm (albeit generally short) and may have temperatures reaching into the 90s °F (the low-to-mid 30s °C), while in the long and very cold winters, the temperature can fall below −60 °F (−51 °C). Precipitation is sparse in the Interior, often less than 10 in (25 cm) a year, but what precipitation falls in the winter tends to stay the entire winter.

The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in Alaska are both in the Interior. The highest is 100 °F (38 °C) in Fort Yukon (which is just 8 mi or 13 km inside the arctic circle) on June 27, 1915,^[66]^[67] making Alaska tied with Hawaii as the state with the lowest high temperature in the United States.^[68]^[69] The lowest official Alaska temperature is −80 °F (−62 °C) in Prospect Creek on January 23, 1971,^[66]^[67] one degree above the lowest temperature recorded in continental North America (in Snag, Yukon, Canada).^[70]

The climate in the extreme north of Alaska, north of the Brooks Range, is Arctic (Köppen: ET) with long, very cold winters and short, cool summers. Even in July, the average low temperature in Utqiaġvik is 34 °F (1 °C).^[71] Precipitation is light in this part of Alaska, with many places averaging less than 10 in (25 cm) per year, mostly as snow which stays on the ground almost the entire year.

Location	July (°F)	July (°C)	January (°F)	January (°C)
Anchorage	65/51	18/10	22/11	−5/−11
Juneau	64/50	17/11	32/23	0/−4
Ketchikan	64/51	17/11	38/28	3/−1
Unalaska	57/46	14/8	36/28	2/−2
Fairbanks	72/53	22/11	1/−17	−17/−27
Fort Yukon	73/51	23/10	−11/−27	−23/−33
Nome	58/46	14/8	13/−2	−10/−19
Utqiaġvik	47/34	8/1	−7/−19	−21/−28

Fauna

Main article: Wildlife of Alaska

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Alaska

Census	Pop.	Note	%±
1880	33,426		—
1890	32,052		−4.1%
1900	63,592		98.4%
1910	64,356		1.2%
1920	55,036		−14.5%
1930	59,278		7.7%
1940	72,524		22.3%
1950	128,643		77.4%
1960	226,167		75.8%
1970	300,382		32.8%
1980	401,851		33.8%
1990	550,043		36.9%
2000	626,932		14.0%
2010	710,231		13.3%
2020	733,391		3.3%
2024 (est.)	740,133	^[73]	0.9%
1930 and 1940 censuses taken in preceding autumn Sources: 1910–2020^[74]

The United States Census Bureau found in the 2020 United States census that the population of Alaska was 733,391 on April 1, 2020, a 3.3% increase since the 2010 United States census.^[6] According to the 2010 United States Census, the U.S. state of Alaska had a population of 710,231, a 13.3% increase from 626,932 at the 2000 U.S. census.

In 2020, Alaska ranked as the 48th largest state by population, ahead of only Vermont and Wyoming.^[75] Alaska is the least densely populated state, and one of the most sparsely populated areas in the world, at 1.2 inhabitants per square mile (0.46/km²), with the next state, Wyoming, at 5.8 inhabitants per square mile (2.2/km²).^[76] Alaska is by far the largest U.S. state by area, and the tenth wealthiest (per capita income).^[77] As of 2018 due to its population size, it is one of 14 U.S. states that still have only one telephone area code.^[78]

According to HUD‘s 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 2,320 homeless people in Alaska.^[79]^[80]

Race and ethnicity

Racial composition	1970^[81]	1990^[81]	2000^[82]	2010^[83]	2020^[84]
White	78.8%	75.5%	69.3%	66.7%	59.4%
Native	16.9%	15.6%	15.6%	14.8%	15.2%
Asian	0.9%	3.6%	4.0%	5.4%	6.0%
Black	3.0%	4.1%	3.5%	3.3%	3.0%
Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander	–	–	0.5%	1.0%	1.7%
Other race	0.4%	1.2%	1.6%	1.6%	2.5%
Multiracial	–	–	5.5%	7.3%	12.2%

The 2019 American Community Survey estimated 60.2% of the population was non-Hispanic white, 3.7% black or African American, 15.6% American Indian or Alaska Native, 6.5% Asian, 1.4% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 7.5% two or more races, and 7.3% Hispanic or Latin American of any race. At the survey estimates, 7.8% of the total population was foreign-born from 2015 to 2019.^[85] In 2015, 61.3% was non-Hispanic white, 3.4% black or African American, 13.3% American Indian or Alaska Native, 6.2% Asian, 0.9% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 0.3% some other race, and 7.7% multiracial. Hispanics and Latin Americans were 7% of the state population in 2015.^[86] From 2015 to 2019, the largest Hispanic and Latin American groups were Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Cuban Americans. The largest Asian groups living in the state were Filipinos, Korean Americans, and Japanese and Chinese Americans.^[87]

The state was 66.7% white (64.1% non-Hispanic white), 14.8% American Indian and Alaska Native, 5.4% Asian, 3.3% black or African American, 1.0% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 1.6% from some other race, and 7.3% from two or more races in 2010. Hispanics or Latin Americans of any race made up 5.5% of the population in 2010.^[88] As of 2011, 50.7% of Alaska’s population younger than one year of age belonged to minority groups (i.e., did not have two parents of non-Hispanic white ancestry).^[89] In 1960, the United States Census Bureau reported Alaska’s population as 77.2% white, 3% black, and 18.8% American Indian and Alaska Native.^[90]

In 2018, the top countries of origin for Alaska’s immigrants were the Philippines, Mexico, Canada, Thailand and South Korea.^[91]

Languages

Further information: Alaska Native languages

According to the 2011 American Community Survey, 83.4% of people over the age of five spoke only English at home. About 3.5% spoke Spanish at home, 2.2% spoke another Indo-European language, about 4.3% spoke an Asian language (including Tagalog),^[92] and about 5.3% spoke other languages at home.^[93] In 2019, the American Community Survey determined 83.7% spoke only English, and 16.3% spoke another language other than English. The most spoken European language after English was Spanish, spoken by approximately 4.0% of the state population. Collectively, Asian and Pacific Islander languages were spoken by 5.6% of Alaskans.^[94] Since 2010, a total of 5.2% of Alaskans speak one of the state’s 20 indigenous languages,^[95] known locally as “native languages”.

The Alaska Native Language Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks claims that at least 20 Alaskan native languages exist and there are also some languages with different dialects.^[96] Most of Alaska’s native languages belong to either the Eskimo–Aleut or Na-Dene language families; some languages are thought to be isolates (e.g. Haida) or have not yet been classified (e.g. Tsimshianic).^[96] As of 2014 nearly all of Alaska’s native languages were classified as either threatened, shifting, moribund, nearly extinct, or dormant languages.^[97]

In October 2014, the governor of Alaska signed a bill declaring the state’s 20 indigenous languages to have official status.^[98]^[99] This bill gave them symbolic recognition as official languages, though they have not been adopted for official use within the government. The 20 languages that were included in the bill are:

Religion

Religious self-identification in Alaska per the Public Religion Research Institute‘s 2020 survey^[100]

Unaffiliated (37%)
Protestantism (36%)
Catholicism (14%)
Eastern Orthodox (4%)
Mormonism (2%)
Jehovah’s Witness (1%)
Other (6%)

Multiple surveys have ranked Alaska among the most irreligious states.^[101]^[102]

ChangePoint in south Anchorage (left) and Anchorage Baptist Temple in east Anchorage (right) are Alaska’s largest churches in terms of attendance and membership.

According to statistics collected by the Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA) from 2010, about 34% of Alaska residents were members of religious congregations. Of the religious population, roughly 4% were Mormon, 0.5% Jewish, 0.5% Muslim, 1% Buddhist, 0.2% Baháʼí, and 0.5% Hindu.^[103] The largest religious denominations in Alaska as of 2010 was the Catholic Church with 50,866 adherents; non-denominational Evangelicals with 38,070 adherents; The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 32,170 adherents; and the Southern Baptist Convention with 19,891 adherents.^[104]^[105] Alaska has been identified, along with Washington and Oregon in the Pacific Northwest, as being the least religious states in the United States, in terms of church membership.^[106]^[107]

The Pew Research Center in 2014 determined 62% of the adult population practiced Christianity. Of the Christian denominations, Catholicism was the largest Christian group. When Protestant denominations were combined, Protestantism was the largest Christian tradition, with Evangelicalism being the largest movement within the Protestant group. The unaffiliated population made up the largest non-Christian religious affiliation at 37%. Atheists made up 5% of the population and the largest non-Christian religion was Buddhism. In 2020, the Public Religion Research Institute (PRRI) determined 57% of adults were Christian.^[108] By 2022, Christianity increased to 77% of the population according to the PRRI.

Through the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2020, its Christian population was dominated by non/inter-denominational Protestantism as the single largest Christian cohort, with 73,930 adherents. Roman Catholics were second with 40,280 members; throughout its Christian population, non-denominational Christians had an adherence rate of 100.81 per 1,000 residents, and Catholics 54.92 per 1,000 residents.^[109] Per 2014’s Pew study, religion was seen as very important to 41% of the population, although 29% considered it somewhat important.^[110] In 2014, Pew determined roughly 55% believed in God with absolute certainty, and 24% believed fairly certainly. Reflecting the separate 2020 ARDA study, the 2014 Pew study showed 30% attended religious services once a week, 34% once or twice a month, and 36% seldom/never.^[110] In 2018, The Gospel Coalition published an article using Pew data and determined non-churchgoing Christians nationwide did not attend religious services often through the following: practicing the faith in other ways, not finding a house of worship they liked, disliking sermons and feeling unwelcomed, and logistics.^[111]

In 1795, the first Russian Orthodox Church was established in Kodiak. Intermarriage with Alaskan Natives helped the Russian immigrants integrate into society. As a result, an increasing number of Russian Orthodox churches gradually became established within Alaska.^[112] Alaska also has the largest Quaker population (by percentage) of any state.^[113] In 2009, there were 6,000 Jews in Alaska (for whom observance of halakha may pose special problems).^[114] Alaskan Hindus often share venues and celebrations with members of other Asian religious communities, including Sikhs and Jains.^[115]^[116]^[117] In 2010, Alaskan Hindus established the Sri Ganesha Temple of Alaska, making it the first Hindu Temple in Alaska and the northernmost Hindu Temple in the world. There are an estimated 2,000–3,000 Hindus in Alaska. The vast majority of Hindus live in Anchorage or Fairbanks.

Estimates for the number of Muslims in Alaska range from 2,000 to 5,000.^[118]^[119]^[120] In 2020, ARDA estimated there were 400 Muslims in the state.^[109] The Islamic Community Center of Anchorage began efforts in the late 1990s to construct a mosque in Anchorage. They broke ground on a building in south Anchorage in 2010 and were nearing completion in late 2014. When completed, the mosque was the first in the state and one of the northernmost mosques in the world.^[121] There is also a Baháʼí center,^[122] and there were 690 adherents in 2020.^[109] Additionally, there were 469 adherents of Hinduism and Yoga altogether in 2020, and a small number of Buddhists were present.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Alaska

As of October 2022, Alaska had a total employment of 316,900. The number of employer establishments was 21,077.^[123]

The 2018 gross state product was $55 billion, 48th in the U.S. Its per capita personal income for 2018 was $73,000, ranking 7th in the nation. According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Alaska had the fifth-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 6.75 percent.^[124] The oil and gas industry dominates the Alaskan economy, with more than 80% of the state’s revenues derived from petroleum extraction. Alaska’s main export product (excluding oil and natural gas) is seafood, primarily salmon, cod, pollock and crab.

Agriculture represents a very small fraction of the Alaskan economy. Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock, dairy products, vegetables, and livestock. Manufacturing is limited, with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere.

Employment is primarily in government and industries such as natural resource extraction, shipping, and transportation. Military bases are a significant component of the economy in the Fairbanks North Star, Anchorage and Kodiak Island boroughs, as well as Kodiak. Federal subsidies are also an important part of the economy, allowing the state to keep taxes low. Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum, natural gas, coal, gold, precious metals, zinc and other mining, seafood processing, timber and wood products. There is also a growing service and tourism sector. Tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging.

Energy

Alaska has vast energy resources, although its oil reserves have been largely depleted. Major oil and gas reserves were found in the Alaska North Slope (ANS) and Cook Inlet basins, but according to the Energy Information Administration, by February 2014 Alaska had fallen to fourth place in the nation in crude oil production after Texas, North Dakota, and California.^[125]^[126] Prudhoe Bay on Alaska’s North Slope is still the second highest-yielding oil field in the United States, typically producing about 400,000 barrels per day (64,000 m³/d), although by early 2014 North Dakota’s Bakken Formation was producing over 900,000 barrels per day (140,000 m³/d).^[127] Prudhoe Bay was the largest conventional oil field ever discovered in North America, but was much smaller than Canada’s enormous Athabasca oil sands field, which by 2014 was producing about 1,500,000 barrels per day (240,000 m³/d) of unconventional oil, and had hundreds of years of producible reserves at that rate.^[128]

The Trans-Alaska Pipeline can transport and pump up to 2.1 million barrels (330,000 m³) of crude oil per day, more than any other crude oil pipeline in the United States. Additionally, substantial coal deposits are found in Alaska’s bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite coal basins. The United States Geological Survey estimates that there are 85.4 trillion cubic feet (2,420 km³) of undiscovered, technically recoverable gas from natural gas hydrates on the Alaskan North Slope.^[129] Alaska also offers some of the highest hydroelectric power potential in the country from its numerous rivers. Large swaths of the Alaskan coastline offer wind and geothermal energy potential as well.^[130]

Alaska’s economy depends heavily on increasingly expensive diesel fuel for heating, transportation, electric power and light. Although wind and hydroelectric power are abundant and underdeveloped, proposals for statewide energy systems were judged uneconomical (at the time of the report, 2001) due to low (less than 50¢/gal) fuel prices, long distances and low population.^[131] The cost of a gallon of gas in urban Alaska is usually thirty to sixty cents higher than the national average; prices in rural areas are generally significantly higher but vary widely depending on transportation costs, seasonal usage peaks, nearby petroleum development infrastructure and many other factors.^[132]^[133]

Permanent Fund

The Alaska Permanent Fund is a constitutionally authorized appropriation of oil revenues, established by voters in 1976 to manage a surplus in state petroleum revenues from oil, largely in anticipation of the then recently constructed Trans-Alaska Pipeline System. The fund was originally proposed by Governor Keith Miller on the eve of the 1969 Prudhoe Bay lease sale, out of fear that the legislature would spend the entire proceeds of the sale (which amounted to $900 million) at once. It was later championed by Governor Jay Hammond and Kenai state representative Hugh Malone. It has served as an attractive political prospect ever since, diverting revenues which would normally be deposited into the general fund.

The Alaska Constitution was written so as to discourage dedicating state funds for a particular purpose. The Permanent Fund has become the rare exception to this, mostly due to the political climate of distrust existing during the time of its creation. From its initial principal of $734,000, the fund has grown to $50 billion as a result of oil royalties and capital investment programs.^[134] Most if not all the principal is invested conservatively outside Alaska. This has led to frequent calls by Alaskan politicians for the Fund to make investments within Alaska, though such a stance has never gained momentum.

Starting in 1982, dividends from the fund’s annual growth have been paid out each year to eligible Alaskans, ranging from an initial $1,000 in 1982 (equal to three years’ payout, as the distribution of payments was held up in a lawsuit over the distribution scheme) to $3,269 in 2008 (which included a one-time $1,200 “Resource Rebate”). Every year, the state legislature takes out 8% from the earnings, puts 3% back into the principal for inflation proofing, and the remaining 5% is distributed to all qualifying Alaskans. To qualify for the Permanent Fund Dividend, one must have lived in the state for a minimum of 12 months, maintain constant residency subject to allowable absences,^[135] and not be subject to court judgments or criminal convictions which fall under various disqualifying classifications or may subject the payment amount to civil garnishment.

The Permanent Fund is often considered to be one of the leading examples of a basic income policy in the world.^[136]

Cost of living

The cost of goods in Alaska has long been higher than in the contiguous 48 states. Federal government employees, particularly United States Postal Service (USPS) workers and active-duty military members, receive a Cost of Living Allowance usually set at 25% of base pay because, while the cost of living has gone down, it is still one of the highest in the country.^[137]

Rural Alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods compared to the rest of the country, due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure.^[137]

Agriculture and fishing

Due to the northern climate and short growing season, relatively little farming occurs in Alaska. Most farms are in either the Matanuska Valley, about 40 miles (64 km) northeast of Anchorage, or on the Kenai Peninsula, about 60 miles (97 km) southwest of Anchorage. The short 100-day growing season limits the crops that can be grown, but the long sunny summer days make for productive growing seasons. The primary crops are potatoes, carrots, lettuce, and cabbage.

The Tanana Valley is another notable agricultural locus, especially the Delta Junction area, about 100 miles (160 km) southeast of Fairbanks, with a sizable concentration of farms growing agronomic crops; these farms mostly lie north and east of Fort Greely. This area was largely set aside and developed under a state program spearheaded by Hammond during his second term as governor. Delta-area crops consist predominantly of barley and hay. West of Fairbanks lies another concentration of small farms catering to restaurants, the hotel and tourist industry, and community-supported agriculture.

Alaskan agriculture has experienced a surge in growth of market gardeners, small farms and farmers’ markets in recent years, with the highest percentage increase (46%) in the nation in growth in farmers’ markets in 2011, compared to 17% nationwide.^[138] The peony industry has also taken off, as the growing season allows farmers to harvest during a gap in supply elsewhere in the world, thereby filling a niche in the flower market.^[139]

Oversized vegetables on display at the Alaska State Fair (left) and the Tanana Valley State Fair (right)

Alaska, with no counties, lacks county fairs. Instead, a small assortment of state and local fairs (with the Alaska State Fair in Palmer the largest), are held mostly in the late summer. The fairs are mostly located in communities with historic or current agricultural activity, and feature local farmers exhibiting produce in addition to more high-profile commercial activities such as carnival rides, concerts and food. “Alaska Grown” is used as an agricultural slogan.

Alaska has an abundance of seafood, with the primary fisheries in the Bering Sea and the North Pacific. Seafood is one of the few food items that is often cheaper within the state than outside it. Many Alaskans take advantage of salmon seasons to harvest portions of their household diet while fishing for subsistence, as well as sport. This includes fish taken by hook, net or wheel.^[140]

Hunting for subsistence, primarily caribou, moose, and Dall sheep is still common in the state, particularly in remote Bush communities. An example of a traditional native food is Akutaq, the Eskimo ice cream, which can consist of reindeer fat, seal oil, dried fish meat and local berries.

Alaska’s reindeer herding is concentrated on Seward Peninsula, where wild caribou can be prevented from mingling and migrating with the domesticated reindeer.^[141]

Most food in Alaska is transported into the state from “Outside” (the other 49 U.S. states), and shipping costs make food in the cities relatively expensive. In rural areas, subsistence hunting and gathering is an essential activity because imported food is prohibitively expensive. Although most small towns and villages in Alaska lie along the coastline, the cost of importing food to remote villages can be high because of the terrain and difficult road conditions, which change dramatically due to varying climate and precipitation changes. Transport costs can reach 50¢ per pound ($1.10/kg) or higher in some remote areas during times of inclement weather or rough terrain conditions, if these locations can be reached at all. The cost of delivering a gallon (3.8 L) of milk is about $3.50 in many villages where per capita income can be $20,000 or less. Fuel cost per gallon is routinely twenty to thirty cents higher than the contiguous United States average, with only Hawaii having higher prices.^[142]^[143]

Culture

Some of Alaska’s popular annual events are the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race from Anchorage to Nome, World Ice Art Championships in Fairbanks, the Blueberry Festival and Alaska Hummingbird Festival in Ketchikan, the Sitka Whale Fest, and the Stikine River Garnet Fest in Wrangell. The Stikine River attracts the largest springtime concentration of American bald eagles in the world.

The Alaska Native Heritage Center celebrates the rich heritage of Alaska’s 11 cultural groups. Their purpose is to encourage cross-cultural exchanges among all people and enhance self-esteem among Native people. The Alaska Native Arts Foundation promotes and markets Native art from all regions and cultures in the State, using the internet.^[144]

Music

Main article: Music of Alaska

Influences on music in Alaska include the traditional music of Alaska Natives as well as folk music brought by later immigrants from Russia and Europe. Prominent musicians from Alaska include singer Jewel, traditional Aleut flautist Mary Youngblood, folk singer-songwriter Libby Roderick, Christian music singer-songwriter Lincoln Brewster, metal/post hardcore band 36 Crazyfists and the groups Pamyua and Portugal. The Man.

There are many established music festivals in Alaska, including the Alaska Folk Festival, the Fairbanks Summer Arts Festival, the Anchorage Folk Festival, the Athabascan Old-Time Fiddling Festival, the Sitka Jazz Festival, the Sitka Summer Music Festival, and the Anchorage Chamber Music Festival. The most prominent orchestra in Alaska is the Anchorage Symphony Orchestra, though the Fairbanks Symphony Orchestra and Juneau Symphony are also notable. The Anchorage Opera is currently the state’s only professional opera company, though there are several volunteer and semi-professional organizations in the state as well.

The official state song of Alaska is “Alaska’s Flag“, which was adopted in 1955; it celebrates the flag of Alaska.

Film and television

Sports

Anchorage

Venues

Alyeska Resort
Chugach State Park, a 495,000-acre (2,000 km²) high alpine park.^[147]
Anchorage has many groomed cross-country skiing trails within the urban core. There are 105 miles (169 km) of maintained ski trails in the city,^[148] some of which reach downtown.^[149]
Mulcahy Stadium
Sullivan Arena
Alaska Airlines Center

Teams

Anchorage Wolverines
Anchorage Bucs
Anchorage Glacier Pilots
Alaska-Anchorage Seawolves men’s ice hockey
Rage City Rollergirls
Arctic Rush (soccer)
Cook Inlet SC (soccer)
Pioneer United FC (men’s soccer)

Events

Great Alaska Shootout, an annual NCAADivision I basketball tournament^[150]
Sadler’s Ultra Challenge wheelchair race between Fairbanks and Anchorage^[151]
The Tour of Anchorage is an annual 50-kilometer (31 mi) ski race within the city.^[152]
World Eskimo Indian Olympics

Fairbanks

Venues

Carlson Center

Teams

Events

Sadler’s Ultra Challenge wheelchair race between Fairbanks and Anchorage^[151]
Sonot Kkaazoot
World Eskimo Indian Olympics

Elsewhere

Teams

Events

Dog mushing

Public health and safety

Health insurance

As of 2022, CVS Health and Premera account for 47% and 46% of private health insurance, respectively.^[157] Premera and Moda Health offer insurance on the federally-run Affordable Care Exchange.^[158]

Hospitals

Main article: List of hospitals in Alaska

Providence Alaska Medical Center in Anchorage is the largest hospital in the state as of 2021;^[159] Anchorage also hosts Alaska Regional Hospital and Alaska Native Medical Center.

Alaska’s other major cities such as Fairbanks and Juneau also have local hospitals.^[160] In Southeast Alaska, Southeast Alaska Regional Health Consortium, runs healthcare facilities across 27 communities as of 2022, including hospitals in Sitka and Wrangell;^[161] although it originally served Native Americans only, it has expanded access and combined with other local facilities over time.^[162]^[163]

Education

The Kachemak Bay Campus of the University of Alaska Anchorage, located in downtown Homer

The Alaska Department of Education and Early Development administers many school districts in Alaska. In addition, the state operates a boarding school, Mt. Edgecumbe High School in Sitka, and provides partial funding for other boarding schools, including Nenana Student Living Center in Nenana and The Galena Interior Learning Academy in Galena.^[164]

There are more than a dozen colleges and universities in Alaska. Accredited universities in Alaska include the University of Alaska Anchorage, University of Alaska Fairbanks, University of Alaska Southeast, and Alaska Pacific University.^[165] Alaska is the only state that has no collegiate athletic programs that are members of NCAA Division I, although both Alaska-Fairbanks and Alaska-Anchorage maintain single sport membership in Division I for men’s ice hockey.

The Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development operates AVTEC, Alaska’s Institute of Technology.^[166] Campuses in Seward and Anchorage offer one-week to 11-month training programs in areas as diverse as Information Technology, Welding, Nursing, and Mechanics.

Alaska has had a problem with a “brain drain“. Many of its young people, including most of the highest academic achievers, leave the state after high school graduation and do not return. As of 2013, Alaska did not have a law school or medical school.^[167] The University of Alaska has attempted to combat this by offering partial four-year scholarships to the top 10% of Alaska high school graduates, via the Alaska Scholars Program.^[168]

Beginning in 1998, schools in rural Alaska must have at least 10 students to retain funding from the state, and campuses not meeting the number close. This was due to the loss in oil revenues that previously propped up smaller rural schools.^[169] In 2015, there was a proposal to raise that minimum to 25,^[170] but legislators in the state largely did not agree.^[171]

Transportation

Main article: Transportation in Alaska

Road

Rail

Built around 1915, the Alaska Railroad (ARR) played a key role in the development of Alaska through the 20th century. It links shipping lanes on the North Pacific with Interior Alaska with tracks that run from Seward by way of South Central Alaska, passing through Anchorage, Eklutna, Wasilla, Talkeetna, Denali, and Fairbanks, with spurs to Whittier, Palmer and North Pole. The cities, towns, villages, and region served by ARR tracks are known statewide as “The Railbelt”. In recent years, the ever-improving paved highway system began to eclipse the railroad’s importance in Alaska’s economy.

The railroad played a vital role in Alaska’s development, moving freight into Alaska while transporting natural resources southward, such as coal from the Usibelli coal mine near Healy to Seward and gravel from the Matanuska Valley to Anchorage. It is well known for its summertime tour passenger service.

The Alaska Railroad was one of the last railroads in North America to use cabooses in regular service and still uses them on some gravel trains. It continues to offer one of the last flag stop routes in the country. A stretch of about 60 miles (100 km) of track along an area north of Talkeetna remains inaccessible by road; the railroad provides the only transportation to rural homes and cabins in the area. Until construction of the Parks Highway in the 1970s, the railroad provided the only land access to most of the region along its entire route.

In northern Southeast Alaska, the White Pass and Yukon Route also partly runs through the state from Skagway northwards into Canada (British Columbia and Yukon Territory), crossing the border at White Pass Summit. This line is now mainly used by tourists, often arriving by cruise liner at Skagway. It was featured in the 1983 BBC television series Great Little Railways.

These two railroads are connected neither to each other nor any other railroad. The nearest link to the North American railway network is the northwest terminus of the Canadian National Railway at Prince Rupert, British Columbia, several hundred miles to the southeast. In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized $6 million to study the feasibility of a rail link between Alaska, Canada, and the lower 48.^[175]^[176]^[177] As of 2021, the Alaska-Alberta Railway Development Corporation had been placed into receivership.

Some private companies provides car float service between Whittier and Seattle.

An Alaska Railroad locomotive over a bridge in Girdwood approaching Anchorage (2007)
The White Pass and Yukon Route traverses rugged terrain north of Skagway near the Canada–US border.

Sea

Many cities, towns, and villages in the state do not have road or highway access; the only modes of access involve travel by air, river, or the sea.

Alaska’s well-developed state-owned ferry system (known as the Alaska Marine Highway) serves the cities of southeast, the Gulf Coast and the Alaska Peninsula. The ferries transport vehicles as well as passengers. The system also operates a ferry service from Bellingham, Washington and Prince Rupert, British Columbia, in Canada through the Inside Passage to Skagway. The Inter-Island Ferry Authority also serves as an important marine link for many communities in the Prince of Wales Island region of Southeast and works in concert with the Alaska Marine Highway.

In recent years, cruise lines have created a summertime tourism market, mainly connecting the Pacific Northwest to Southeast Alaska and, to a lesser degree, towns along Alaska’s gulf coast. The population of Ketchikan for example fluctuates dramatically on many days—up to four large cruise ships can dock there at the same time.

Air

Cities not served by road, sea, or river can be reached only by air, foot, dogsled, or snowmachine, accounting for Alaska’s extremely well developed bush air services—an Alaskan novelty. Anchorage, and to a lesser extent Fairbanks, is served by many major airlines. Because of limited highway access, air travel remains the most efficient form of transportation in and out of the state. Anchorage recently completed extensive remodeling and construction at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport to help accommodate the upsurge in tourism (in 2012–2013, Alaska received almost two million visitors).^[178]

Making regular flights to most villages and towns within the state commercially viable is difficult, so they are heavily subsidized by the federal government through the Essential Air Service program. Alaska Airlines is the only major airline offering in-state travel with jet service (sometimes in combination cargo and passenger Boeing 737-400s) from Anchorage and Fairbanks to regional hubs like Bethel, Nome, Kotzebue, Dillingham, Kodiak, and other larger communities as well as to major Southeast and Alaska Peninsula communities.

The bulk of remaining commercial flight offerings come from small regional commuter airlines such as Ravn Alaska, PenAir, and Frontier Flying Service. The smallest towns and villages must rely on scheduled or chartered bush flying services using general aviation aircraft such as the Cessna Caravan, the most popular aircraft in use in the state. Much of this service can be attributed to the Alaska bypass mail program which subsidizes bulk mail delivery to Alaskan rural communities. The program requires 70% of that subsidy to go to carriers who offer passenger service to the communities.

Many communities have small air taxi services. These operations originated from the demand for customized transport to remote areas. Perhaps the most quintessentially Alaskan plane is the bush seaplane. The world’s busiest seaplane base is Lake Hood, located next to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, where flights bound for remote villages without an airstrip carry passengers, cargo, and many items from stores and warehouse clubs.

In 2006, Alaska had the highest number of pilots per capita of any U.S. state.^[179] In Alaska there are 8,795 active pilot certificates as of 2020.^[180]

Snow

Another Alaskan transportation method is the dogsled. In modern times (that is, any time after the mid-late 1920s), dog mushing is more of a sport than a true means of transportation. Various races are held around the state, but the best known is the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, a 1,150-mile (1,850 km) trail from Anchorage to Nome (although the distance varies from year to year, the official distance is set at 1,049 miles or 1,688 km). The race commemorates the famous 1925 serum run to Nome in which mushers and dogs like Togo and Balto took much-needed medicine to the diphtheria-stricken community of Nome when all other means of transportation had failed. Mushers from all over the world come to Anchorage each March to compete for cash, prizes, and prestige. The “Serum Run” is another sled dog race that more accurately follows the route of the famous 1925 relay, leaving from the community of Nenana (southwest of Fairbanks) to Nome.^[181]

In areas not served by road or rail, primary transportation in summer is by all-terrain vehicle and in winter by snowmobile or “snow machine”, as it is commonly referred to in Alaska.^[182]

Communication

Alaska’s internet and other data transport systems are provided largely through the two major telecommunications companies: GCI and Alaska Communications. GCI owns and operates what it calls the Alaska United Fiber Optic system^[183] and, as of late 2011, Alaska Communications advertised that it has “two fiber optic paths to the lower 48 and two more across Alaska.^[184] In January 2011, it was reported that a $1 billion project to connect Asia and rural Alaska was being planned, aided in part by $350 million in stimulus from the federal government.^[185]

Law and government

State government

Main article: Government of Alaska

Like all other U.S. states, Alaska is governed as a republic, with three branches of government: an executive branch consisting of the governor of Alaska and their appointees which head executive departments; a legislative branch consisting of the Alaska House of Representatives and Alaska Senate; and a judicial branch consisting of the Alaska Supreme Court and lower courts.

The state of Alaska employs approximately 16,000 people statewide.^[186]

The Alaska State Legislature consists of a 40-member House of Representatives and a 20-member Senate. Senators serve four-year terms and House members two. The governor of Alaska serves four-year terms. The lieutenant governor runs separately from the governor in the primaries, but during the general election, the nominee for governor and nominee for lieutenant governor run together on the same ticket.

Alaska’s court system has four levels: the Alaska Supreme Court, the Alaska Court of Appeals, the superior courts and the district courts.^[187] The superior and district courts are trial courts. Superior courts are courts of general jurisdiction, while district courts hear only certain types of cases, including misdemeanor criminal cases and civil cases valued up to $100,000.^[187]

The Supreme Court and the Court of Appeals are appellate courts. The Court of Appeals is required to hear appeals from certain lower-court decisions, including those regarding criminal prosecutions, juvenile delinquency, and habeas corpus.^[187] The Supreme Court hears civil appeals and may in its discretion hear criminal appeals.^[187]

State politics

Main article: Politics of Alaska

Further information: Political party strength in Alaska and Alaska political corruption probe

Year	Democratic	Republican	Others
1958	59.6% 29,189	39.4% 19,299
1962	52.3% 29,627	47.7% 27,054
1966	48.4% 32,065	50.0% 33,145
1970	52.4% 42,309	46.1% 37,264
1974	47.4% 45,553	47.7% 45,840
1978	20.2% 25,656	39.1% 49,580
1982	46.1% 89,918	37.1% 72,291
1986	47.3% 84,943	42.6% 76,515
1990	30.9% 60,201	26.2% 50,991	38.9% 75,721^[b]
1994	41.1% 87,693	40.8% 87,157
1998	51.3% 112,879	17.9% 39,331
2002	40.7% 94,216	55.9% 129,279
2006	41.0% 97,238	48.3% 114,697
2010	37.7% 96,519	59.1% 151,318
2014	0.0% 0	45.9% 128,435	48.1% 134,658^[c]
2018	44.4% 125,739	51.4% 145,631
2022	24.2% 63,755	50.3% 132,392

Although in its early years of statehood Alaska was a Democratic state, since the early 1970s it has been characterized as Republican-leaning.^[189] Local political communities have often worked on issues related to land use development, fishing, tourism, and individual rights. Alaska Natives, while organized in and around their communities, have been active within the Native corporations. These have been given ownership over large tracts of land, which require stewardship.

Alaska was formerly the only state in which possession of one ounce or less of marijuana in one’s home was completely legal under state law, though the federal law remains in force.^[190]

The state has an independence movement favoring a vote on secession from the United States, with the Alaskan Independence Party.^[191]

Six Republicans and four Democrats have served as governor of Alaska. In addition, Republican governor Wally Hickel was elected to the office for a second term in 1990 after leaving the Republican party and briefly joining the Alaskan Independence Party ticket just long enough to be reelected. He officially rejoined the Republican party in 1994.

Alaska’s voter initiative making marijuana legal took effect on February 24, 2015, placing Alaska alongside Colorado and Washington, as well as Washington D.C., as the first three U.S. states where recreational marijuana is legal. The new law means people over 21 can consume small amounts of cannabis.^[192] The first legal marijuana store opened in Valdez in October 2016.^[193]

Voter registration

Party registration as of June 3, 2024^[194]
Party		Total voters	Percentage
	Unaffiliated	346,751	58.35%
	Republican	143,401	24.13%
	Democratic	73,598	12.38%
	Alaskan Independence	18,768	3.16%
	Minor parties	11,758	1.98%
Total		594,276	100.00%

Taxes

To finance state government operations, Alaska depends primarily on petroleum revenues and federal subsidies. This allows it to have the lowest individual tax burden in the United States.^[195] It is one of five states with no sales tax, one of seven states with no individual income tax, and—along with New Hampshire—one of two that has neither.^[196] The Department of Revenue Tax Division^[197] reports regularly on the state’s revenue sources. The department also issues an annual summary of its operations, including new state laws that directly affect the tax division. In 2014, the Tax Foundation ranked Alaska as having the fourth most “business friendly” tax policy, behind only Wyoming, South Dakota, and Nevada.^[198]

While Alaska has no state sales tax, 89 municipalities collect a local sales tax, from 1.0 to 7.5%, typically 3–5%. Other local taxes levied include raw fish taxes, hotel, motel, and bed-and-breakfast ‘bed’ taxes, severance taxes, liquor and tobacco taxes, gaming (pull tabs) taxes, tire taxes and fuel transfer taxes. A part of the revenue collected from certain state taxes and license fees (such as petroleum, aviation motor fuel, telephone cooperative) is shared with municipalities in Alaska.

The fall in oil prices after the fracking boom in the early 2010s has decimated Alaska’s state treasury, which has historically received about 85 percent of its revenue from taxes and fees imposed on oil and gas companies.^[199] The state government has had to drastically reduce its budget, and has brought its budget shortfall from over $2 billion in 2016 to under $500 million by 2018. In 2020, Alaska’s state government budget was $4.8 billion, while projected government revenues were only $4.5 billion.^[200]

Federal politics

Main article: Politics of Alaska

Alaska regularly supports Republicans in presidential elections and has done so since statehood. Republicans have won the state’s electoral college votes in all but one election that it has participated in (1964). No state has voted for a Democratic presidential candidate fewer times. Alaska was carried by Democratic nominee Lyndon B. Johnson during his landslide election in 1964, while the 1960 and 1968 elections were close. Since 1972, Republicans have carried the state by large margins. In 2008, Republican John McCain defeated Democrat Barack Obama in Alaska, 59.49% to 37.83%. McCain’s running mate was Sarah Palin, the state’s governor and the first Alaskan on a major party ticket. Obama lost Alaska again in 2012, but he captured 40% of the state’s vote in that election, making him the first Democrat to do so since 1968. In 2020, Joe Biden received 42.77% of the vote for president, marking the high point for a Democratic presidential candidate since Johnson’s 1964 victory.

The Alaska Bush, central Juneau, midtown and downtown Anchorage, and the areas surrounding the University of Alaska Fairbanks campus and Ester have been strongholds of the Democratic Party. The Matanuska-Susitna Borough, the majority of Fairbanks (including North Pole and the military base), and South Anchorage typically have the strongest Republican showing.

Elections

Alaska has a history of primary defeats for incumbent U.S. Senators, including Ernest Gruening, Mike Gravel, and Lisa Murkowski. However, Murkowski won re-election with a write-in campaign. Despite this, Alaska has also seen long-serving members of Congress, such as Ted Stevens, who served as a U.S. Senator for 40 years, and Don Young, who held Alaska’s sole U.S. House seat for 49 years (from 1973 to 2022).

In the 2020 election cycle, Alaskan voters approved Ballot Measure 2.^[201] The measure passed by a margin of 1.1%, or about 4,000 votes.^[202] The measure requires campaigns to disclose the original source and any intermediaries for campaign contributions over $2,000. The measure also establishes non-partisan primaries, sometimes called jungle primaries, for statewide elections (like in Washington state and California) and ranked-choice voting (like in Maine).^[202] Measure 2 makes Alaska the third state with nonpartisan primaries for all statewide races, the second state with ranked choice voting, and the only state with both.

The 2022 special election to fill Alaska’s only U.S. House seat, left vacant by the death of Don Young, was won by Mary Peltola. She became the first Democrat to win the House seat since 1972 and the first Alaskan Native elected to the United States Congress in history. After winning a full term in the 2022 general election, Peltola lost reelection in 2024 to Republican Nick Begich III.

Alaska’s current statewide elected officials
Mike Dunleavy, Governor
Lisa Murkowski, senior United States senator
Dan Sullivan, junior United States senator
Nick Begich III, U.S. representative

March 20, 2025

Polar Bear

The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a large bear native to the Arctic and nearby areas. It is closely related to the brown bear, and the two species can interbreed. The polar bear is the largest extant species of bear and land carnivore, with adult males weighing 300–800 kg (660–1,760 lb). The species is sexually dimorphic, as adult females are much smaller. The polar bear is white- or yellowish-furred with black skin and a thick layer of fat. It is more slender than the brown bear, with a narrower skull, longer neck and lower shoulder hump. Its teeth are sharper and more adapted to cutting meat. The paws are large and allow the bear to walk on ice and paddle in the water.

Polar bears are both terrestrial and pagophilic (ice-living) and are considered marine mammals because of their dependence on marine ecosystems. They prefer the annual sea ice but live on land when the ice melts in the summer. They are mostly carnivorous and specialized for preying on seals, particularly ringed seals. Such prey is typically taken by ambush; the bear may stalk its prey on the ice or in the water, but also will stay at a breathing hole or ice edge to wait for prey to swim by. The bear primarily feeds on the seal’s energy-rich blubber. Other prey include walruses, beluga whales and some terrestrial animals. Polar bears are usually solitary but can be found in groups when on land. During the breeding season, male bears guard females and defend them from rivals. Mothers give birth to cubs in maternity dens during the winter. Young stay with their mother for up to two and a half years.

The polar bear is considered a vulnerable species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) with an estimated total population of 22,000 to 31,000 individuals. Its biggest threats are climate change, pollution and energy development. Climate change has caused a decline in sea ice, giving the polar bear less access to its favoured prey and increasing the risk of malnutrition and starvation. Less sea ice also means that the bears must spend more time on land, increasing conflicts with humans. Polar bears have been hunted, both by native and non-native peoples, for their coats, meat and other items. They have been kept in captivity in zoos and circuses and are prevalent in art, folklore, religion and modern culture.

Naming

The polar bear was given its common name by Thomas Pennant in A Synopsis of Quadrupeds (1771). It was known as the “white bear” in Europe between the 13th and 18th centuries, as well as “ice bear”, “sea bear” and “Greenland bear”. The Norse referred to it as isbjørn ‘ice bear’ and hvitebjørn ‘white bear’. The bear is called nanook by the Inuit. The Netsilik cultures additionally have different names for bears based on certain factors, such as sex and age: these include adult males (anguraq), single adult females (tattaq), gestating females (arnaluk), newborns (hagliaqtug), large adolescents (namiaq) and dormant bears (apitiliit).^[5] The scientific name Ursus maritimus is Latin for ‘sea bear’.^[6]^[7]

Taxonomy

Carl Linnaeus classified the polar bear as a type of brown bear (Ursus arctos), labelling it as Ursus maritimus albus-major, arcticus (‘mostly-white sea bear, arctic’) in the 1758 edition of his work Systema Naturae.^[8] Constantine John Phipps formally described the polar bear as a distinct species, Ursus maritimus in 1774, following his 1773 voyage towards the North Pole.^[4]^[9] Because of its adaptations to a marine environment, some taxonomists, such as Theodore Knottnerus-Meyer, have placed the polar bear in its own genus, Thalarctos.^[10]^[11] However Ursus is widely considered to be the valid genus for the species on the basis of the fossil record and the fact that it can breed with the brown bear.^[11]^[12]

Different subspecies have been proposed including Ursus maritimus maritimus and U. m. marinus.^[a]^[13] However, these are not supported, and the polar bear is considered to be monotypic.^[14] One possible fossil subspecies, U. m. tyrannus, was posited in 1964 by Björn Kurtén, who reconstructed the subspecies from a single fragment of an ulna which was approximately 20 percent larger than expected for a polar bear.^[12] However, re-evaluation in the 21st century has indicated that the fragment likely comes from a giant brown bear.^[15]^[16]

Evolution

The polar bear is one of eight extant species in the bear family, Ursidae, and of six extant species in the subfamily Ursinae.

A possible phylogeny based on complete mitochondrial DNA sequences from Yu et al. (2007).^[17]
UrsidaeGiant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) Spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus) Ursinae Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) Sun bear (Helarctos malayanus) Asian black bear (Ursus thibetanus) American black bear (Ursus americanus) Polar bear (Ursus maritimus) Brown bear (Ursus arctos)
The polar bear and the brown bear form a close grouping, while the relationships of the other species are not very well resolved.^[18]

A more recent phylogeny based on the genetic study of Kumar et al. (2017).^[19]
UrsidaeGiant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) Spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus) Ursinae Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) Sun bear (Helarctos malayanus) Asian black bear (Ursus thibetanus) American black bear (Ursus americanus) Polar bear (Ursus maritimus) Brown bear (Ursus arctos)
The study concludes that Ursine bears originated around five million years ago and show extensive hybridization of species in their lineage.^[19]

Fossils of polar bears are uncommon.^[12]^[15] The oldest known fossil is a 130,000- to 110,000-year-old jaw bone, found on Prince Charles Foreland, Norway, in 2004.^[20]^[1] Scientists in the 20th century surmised that polar bears directly descended from a population of brown bears, possibly in eastern Siberia or Alaska.^[12]^[15] Mitochondrial DNA studies in the 1990s and 2000s supported the status of the polar bear as a derivative of the brown bear, finding that some brown bear populations were more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, particularly the ABC Islands bears of Southeast Alaska.^[20]^[21]^[22] A 2010 study estimated that the polar bear lineage split from other brown bears around 150,000 years ago.^[20]

Polar/brown bear hybrid taxidermy specimen on display at Natural History Museum at Tring in Hertfordshire, England

More extensive genetic studies have refuted the idea that polar bears are directly descended from brown bears and found that the two species are separate sister lineages. The genetic similarities between polar bears and some brown bears were found to be the result of interbreeding.^[23]^[24] A 2012 study estimated the split between polar and brown bears as occurring around 600,000 years ago.^[23] A 2022 study estimated the divergence as occurring even earlier at over one million years ago.^[24] Glaciation events over hundreds of thousands of years led to both the origin of polar bears and their subsequent interactions and hybridizations with brown bears.^[25]

Studies in 2011 and 2012 concluded that gene flow went from brown bears to polar bears during hybridization.^[23]^[26] In particular, a 2011 study concluded that living polar bear populations derived their maternal lines from now-extinct Irish brown bears.^[26] Later studies have clarified that gene flow went from polar to brown bears rather than the reverse.^[25]^[27]^[28] Up to 9 percent of the genome of ABC bears was transferred from polar bears,^[29] while Irish bears had up to 21.5 percent polar bear origin.^[27] Mass hybridization between the two species appears to have stopped around 200,000 years ago. Modern hybrids are relatively rare in the wild.^[24]

Analysis of the number of variations of gene copies in polar bears compared with brown bears and American black bears shows distinct adaptions. Polar bears have a less diverse array of olfactory receptor genes, a result of there being fewer odours in their Arctic habitat. With its carnivorous, high-fat diet the species has fewer copies of the gene involved in making amylase, an enzyme that breaks down starch, and more selection for genes for fatty acid breakdown and a more efficient circulatory system. The polar bear’s thicker coat is the result of more copies of genes involved in keratin-creating proteins.^[30]

Characteristics

Polar bear skeleton

Bear skull

The polar bear is the largest living species of bear and land carnivore, though some brown bear subspecies like the Kodiak bear can rival it in size.^[31]^[32] Males are generally 200–250 cm (6.6–8.2 ft) long with a weight of 300–800 kg (660–1,760 lb). Females are smaller at 180–200 cm (5.9–6.6 ft) with a weight of 150–300 kg (330–660 lb).^[10] Sexual dimorphism in the species is particularly high compared with most other mammals.^[33] Male polar bears also have proportionally larger heads than females.^[34] The weight of polar bears fluctuates during the year, as they can bulk up on fat and increase their mass by 50 percent.^[31] A fattened, pregnant female can weigh as much as 500 kg (1,100 lb).^[35] Adults may stand 130–160 cm (4.3–5.2 ft) tall at the shoulder. The tail is 76–126 mm (3.0–5.0 in) long.^[10] The largest polar bear on record, reportedly weighing 1,002 kg (2,209 lb), was a male shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.^[36]

Compared with the brown bear, this species has a more slender build, with a narrower, flatter and smaller skull, a longer neck, and a lower shoulder hump.^[31]^[37] The snout profile is curved, resembling a “Roman nose“.^[31] They have 34–42 teeth including 12 incisors, 4 canines, 8–16 premolars and 10 molars. The teeth are adapted for a more carnivorous diet than that of the brown bear, having longer, sharper and more spaced out canines, and smaller, more pointed cheek teeth (premolars and molars).^[33]^[38]^[37] The species has a large space or diastema between the canines and cheek teeth, which may allow it to better bite into prey.^[38]^[39] Since it normally preys on animals much smaller than it, the polar bear does not have a particularly strong bite.^[39] Polar bears have large paws, with the front paws being broader than the back. The feet are hairier than in other bear species, providing warmth and friction when stepping on snow and sea ice.^[40] The claws are small but sharp and hooked and are used both to snatch prey and climb onto ice.^[41]^[42]

The coat consists of dense underfur around 5 cm (2.0 in) long and guard hairs around 15 cm (5.9 in) long.^[10] Males have long hairs on their forelegs, which is thought to signal their fitness to females.^[43] The outer surface of the hairs has a scaly appearance, and the guard hairs are hollow, which allows the animals to trap heat and float in the water.^[44] The transparent guard hairs forward scatter ultraviolet light between the underfur and the skin, leading to a cycle of absorption and re-emission, keeping them warm.^[45] The fur appears white because of the backscatter of incident light and the absence of pigment.^[45]^[46] Polar bears gain a yellowish colouration as they are exposed more to the sun. This is reversed after they moult. It can also be grayish or brownish.^[10] Their light fur provides camouflage in their snowy environment. After emerging from the water, the bear can easily shake itself dry since the hairs are resistant to tangling when wet.^[47] Oil secretions prevent the hair from freezing.^[48] The skin, including the nose and lips, is black and absorbs heat.^[10]^[45] Polar bears have a 5–10 cm (2.0–3.9 in) thick layer of fat underneath the skin,^[10] which provides both warmth and energy.^[49] Polar bears maintain their core body temperature at about 36.9 °C (98.4 °F).^[50] Overheating is countered by a layer of highly vascularized striated muscle tissue and finely controlled blood vessels. Bears also cool off by entering the water.^[45]^[51]

The eyes of a polar bear are close to the top of the head, which may allow them to stay out of the water when the animal is swimming at the surface. They are relatively small, which may be an adaption against blowing snow and snow blindness. Polar bears are dichromats, and lack the cone cells for seeing medium, mainly green, wavelengths. They have many rod cells, which allow them to see at night. The ears are small, allowing them to retain heat and not get frostbitten.^[52] They can hear best at frequencies of 11.2–22.5 kHz, a wider frequency range than expected given that their prey mostly makes low-frequency sounds.^[53] The nasal concha creates a large surface area, so more warm air can move through the nasal passages.^[54] Their olfactory system is also large and adapted for smelling prey over vast distances.^[55] The animal has reniculate kidneys which filter out the salt in their food.^[56]

Distribution and habitat

Polar bears inhabit the Arctic and adjacent areas. Their range includes Greenland, Canada, Alaska, Russia and the Svalbard Archipelago of Norway.^[10]^[58]^[59] Polar bears have been recorded as close as 25 km (16 mi) from the North Pole.^[60] The southern limits of their range include James Bay and Newfoundland and Labrador in Canada and St. Matthew Island and the Pribilof Islands of Alaska.^[10] They are not permanent residents of Iceland but have been recorded visiting there if they can reach it via sea ice.^[61] As there has been minimal human encroachment on the bears’ remote habitat, they can still be found in much of their original range, more of it than any other large land carnivore.^[62]

Polar bears have been divided into at least 18 subpopulations labelled East Greenland (ES), Barents Sea (BS), Kara Sea (KS), Laptev Sea (LVS), Chukchi Sea (CS), northern and southern Beaufort Sea (SBS and NBS), Viscount Melville (VM), M’Clintock Channel (MC), Gulf of Boothia (GB), Lancaster Sound (LS), Norwegian Bay (NB), Kane Basin (KB), Baffin Bay (BB), Davis Strait (DS), Foxe Basin (FB) and the western and southern Hudson Bay (WHB and SHB) populations.^[63]^[57] Bears in and around the Queen Elizabeth Islands have been proposed as a subpopulation but this is not universally accepted.^[57] A 2022 study has suggested that the bears in southeast Greenland should be considered a different subpopulation based on their geographic isolation and genetics.^[64] Polar bear populations can also be divided into four gene clusters: Southern Canadian, Canadian Archipelago, Western Basin (northwestern Canada west to the Russian Far East) and Eastern Basin (Greenland east to Siberia).^[63]

The polar bear is dependent enough on the ocean to be considered a marine mammal.^[14]^[65] It is pagophilic and mainly inhabits annual sea ice covering continental shelves and between islands of archipelagos. These areas, known as the “Arctic Ring of Life”, have high biological productivity.^[62]^[66] The species tends to frequent areas where sea ice meets water, such as polynyas and leads, to hunt the seals that make up most of its diet.^[67] Polar bears travel in response to changes in ice cover throughout the year. They are forced onto land in summer when the sea ice disappears.^[68] Terrestrial habitats used by polar bears include forests, mountains, rocky areas, lakeshores and creeks.^[69] In the Chukchi and Beaufort seas, where the sea ice breaks off and floats north during the summer, polar bears generally stay on the ice, though a large portion of the population (15–40%) has been observed spending all summer on land since the 1980s.^[70] Some areas have thick multiyear ice that does not completely melt and the bears can stay on all year,^[71]^[72] though this type of ice has fewer seals and allows for less productivity in the water.^[72]

Behaviour and ecology

Polar bears may travel areas as small as 3,500 km² (1,400 sq mi) to as large as 38,000 km² (15,000 sq mi) in a year, while drifting ice allows them to move further.^[73] Depending on ice conditions, a bear can travel an average of 12 km (7.5 mi) per day.^[74] These movements are powered by their energy-rich diet.^[49] Polar bears move by walking and galloping and do not trot.^[75] Walking bears tilt their front paws towards each other.^[41] They can run at estimated speeds of up to 40 km/h (25 mph)^[76] but typically move at around 5.5 km/h (3.4 mph).^[77] Polar bears are also capable swimmers and can swim at up to 6 km/h (3.7 mph).^[78] One study found they can swim for an average of 3.4 days at a time and travel an average of 154.2 km (95.8 mi).^[79] They can dive for as long as three minutes.^[80] When swimming, the broad front paws do the paddling, while the hind legs play a role in steering and diving.^[10]^[41]

Most polar bears are active year-round. Hibernation occurs only among pregnant females.^[81] Non-hibernating bears typically have a normal 24-hour cycle even during days of all darkness or all sunlight, though cycles less than a day are more common during the former.^[82] The species is generally diurnal, being most active early in the day.^[83] Polar bears sleep close to eight hours a day on average.^[84] They will sleep in various positions, including curled up, sitting up, lying on one side, on the back with limbs spread, or on the belly with the rump elevated.^[42]^[77] On sea ice, polar bears snooze at pressure ridges where they dig on the sheltered side and lie down. After a snowstorm, a bear may rest under the snow for hours or days. On land, the bears may dig a resting spot on gravel or sand beaches.^[85] They will also sleep on rocky outcrops.^[86] In mountainous areas on the coast, mothers and subadults will sleep on slopes where they can better spot another bear coming.^[84] Adult males are less at risk from other bears and can sleep nearly anywhere.^[86]

Social life

Duration: 39 seconds.0:39Young bears play-fighting

Polar bears are typically solitary, aside from mothers with cubs and mating pairs.^[87] On land, they are found closer together and gather around food resources. Adult males, in particular, are more tolerant of each other in land environments and outside the breeding season.^[88]^[89] They have been recorded forming stable “alliances”, travelling, resting and playing together. A dominance hierarchy exists among polar bears with the largest mature males ranking at the top. Adult females outrank subadults and adolescents and younger males outrank females of the same age. In addition, cubs with their mothers outrank those on their own.^[90] Females with dependent offspring tend to stay away from males,^[89] but are sometimes associated with other female–offspring units, creating “composite families”.^[90]

Polar bears are generally quiet but can produce various sounds.^[91] Chuffing, a soft pulsing call, is made by mother bears presumably to keep in contact with their young.^[92] During the breeding season, adult males will chuff at potential mates.^[93] Unlike other animals where chuffing is passed through the nostrils, in polar bears it is emitted through a partially open mouth.^[92] Cubs will cry for attention and produce humming noises while nursing.^[94] Teeth chops, jaw pops, blows, huffs, moans, growls and roars are heard in more hostile encounters.^[93] A polar bear visually communicates with its eyes, ears, nose and lips.^[90] Chemical communication can also be important: bears secrete their scent from their foot pads into their tracks, allowing individuals to keep track of one another.^[95]

Diet and hunting

The polar bear is a hypercarnivore,^[96] and the most carnivorous species of bear.^[37] It is an apex predator of the Arctic,^[97] preying on ice-living seals and consuming their energy-rich blubber.^[98] The most commonly taken species is the ringed seal, but they also prey on bearded seals and harp seals.^[10] Ringed seals are ideal prey as they are abundant and small enough to be overpowered by even small bears.^[99] Bearded seal adults are larger and are more likely to break free from an attacking bear, hence adult male bears are more successful in hunting them. Less common prey are hooded seals, spotted seals, ribbon seals and the more temperate-living harbour seals.^[100] Polar bears, mostly adult males, will occasionally hunt walruses both on land and ice. They mainly target young walruses, as adults, with their thick skin and long tusks, are too large and formidable.^[101]

Besides seals, bears will prey on cetacean species such as beluga whales and narwhals, as well as reindeer, birds and their eggs, fish and marine invertebrates.^[102] They rarely eat plant material as their digestive system is too specialized for animal matter,^[103] though they have been recorded eating berries, moss, grass and seaweed.^[104] In their southern range, especially near Hudson Bay and James Bay, polar bears endure all summer without sea ice to hunt from and must subsist more on terrestrial foods.^[105] Fat reserves allow polar bears to survive for months without eating.^[106] Cannibalism is known to occur in the species.^[107]

Polar bears hunt their prey in several different ways. When a bear spots a seal hauling out on the sea ice, it slowly stalks it with the head and neck lowered, possibly to make its dark nose and eyes less noticeable. As it gets closer, the bear crouches more and eventually charges at a high speed, attempting to catch the seal before it can escape into its ice hole. Some stalking bears need to move through water; traversing through water cavities in the ice when approaching the seal or swimming towards a seal on an ice floe. The polar bear can stay underwater with its nose exposed. When it gets close enough, the animal lunges from the water to attack.^[108]

During a limited time in spring, polar bears will search for ringed seal pups in their birth lairs underneath the ice. Once a bear catches the scent of a hiding pup and pinpoints its location, it approaches the den quietly to not alert it. It uses its front feet to smash through the ice and then pokes its head in to catch the pup before it can escape. A ringed seal’s lair can be more than 1 m (3 ft 3 in) below the surface of the ice and thus more massive bears are better equipped for breaking in. Some bears may simply stay still near a breathing hole or other spot near the water and wait for prey to come by.^[109] This can last hours and when a seal surfaces the bear will try to pull it out with its paws and claws.^[110] This tactic is the primary hunting method from winter to early spring.^[10]

Bears hunt walrus groups by provoking them into stampeding and then look for young that have been crushed or separated from their mothers during the turmoil.^[101] There are reports of bears trying to kill or injure walruses by throwing rocks and pieces of ice on them.^[111] Belugas and narwhals are vulnerable to bear attacks when they are stranded in shallow water or stuck in isolated breathing holes in the ice.^[112] When stalking reindeer, polar bears will hide in vegetation before an ambush.^[76] On some occasions, bears may try to catch prey in open water, swimming underneath a seal or aquatic bird. Seals in particular, however, are more agile than bears in the water.^[113] Polar bears rely on raw power when trying to kill their prey, and will employ bites and paw swipes.^[96] They have the strength to pull a mid-sized seal out of the water or haul a beluga carcass for quite some distance.^[114] Polar bears only occasionally store food for later—burying it under snow—and only in the short term.^[115]

Arctic foxes routinely follow polar bears and scavenge scraps from their kills. The bears usually tolerate them but will charge a fox that gets too close when they are feeding. Polar bears themselves will scavenge. Subadult bears will eat remains left behind by others. Females with cubs often abandon a carcass when they see an adult male approaching, though are less likely to if they have not eaten in a long time.^[116] Whale carcasses are a valuable food source, particularly on land and after the sea ice melts, and attract several bears.^[88] In one area in northeastern Alaska, polar bears have been recorded competing with grizzly bears for whale carcasses. Despite their smaller size, grizzlies are more aggressive and polar bears are likely to yield to them in confrontations.^[117] Polar bears will also scavenge at garbage dumps during ice-free periods.^[118]

Reproduction and development

Polar bear mating takes place on the sea ice and during spring, mostly between March and May.^[10]^[119]^[120]^[87] Males search for females in estrus and often travel in twisting paths which reduces the chances of them encountering other males while still allowing them to find females. The movements of females remain linear and they travel more widely.^[121] The mating system can be labelled as female-defence polygyny, serial monogamy or promiscuity.^[120]^[122]

Upon finding a female, a male will try to isolate and guard her. Courtship can be somewhat aggressive, and a male will pursue a female if she tries to run away. It can take days for the male to mate with the female which induces ovulation. After their first copulation, the couple bond. Undisturbed polar bear pairings typically last around two weeks during which they will sleep together and mate multiple times.^[123] Competition for mates can be intense and this has led to sexual selection for bigger males. Polar bear males often have scars from fighting.^[119]^[120] A male and female that have already bonded will flee together when another male arrives.^[124] A female mates with multiple males in a season and a single litter can have more than one father.^[122]

When the mating season ends, the female will build up more fat reserves to sustain both herself and her young. Sometime between August and October, the female constructs and enters a maternity den for winter. Depending on the area, maternity dens can be found in sea ice just off the coastline or further inland and may be dug underneath snow, earth or a combination of both.^[125] The inside of these shelters can be around 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) wide with a ceiling height of 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) while the entrance may be 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in) long and 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) wide. The temperature of a den can be much higher than the outside.^[126] Females hibernate and give birth to their cubs in the dens.^[127] Hibernating bears fast and internally recycle bodily waste. Polar bears experience delayed implantation and the fertilized embryo does not start development until the fall, between mid-September and mid-October.^[128] With delayed implantation, gestation in the species lasts seven to nine months but actual pregnancy is only two months.^[129]

Mother polar bears typically give birth to two cubs per litter. As with other bear species, newborn polar bears are tiny and altricial.^[130] The newborns have woolly hair and pink skin, with a weight of around 600 g (21 oz).^[10]^[31] Their eyes remain closed for a month.^[131] The mother’s fatty milk fuels their growth, and the cubs are kept warm both by the mother’s body heat and the den. The mother emerges from the den between late February and early April, and her cubs are well-developed and capable of walking with her.^[132] At this time they weigh 10–15 kg (22–33 lb).^[10] A polar bear family stays near the den for roughly two weeks; during this time the cubs will move and play around while the mother mostly rests. They eventually head out on the sea ice.^[133]Duration: 38 seconds.0:38Mother nursing her young

Cubs under a year old stay close to their mother. When she hunts, they stay still and watch until she calls them back.^[134] Observing and imitating the mother helps the cubs hone their hunting skills.^[135] After their first year they become more independent and explore. At around two years old, they are capable of hunting on their own.^[136] The young suckle their mother as she is lying on her side or sitting on her rump.^[133] A lactating female cannot conceive and give birth,^[137] and cubs are weaned between two and two-and-a-half years.^[10] She may simply leave her weaned young or they may be chased away by a courting male.^[136] Polar bears reach sexual maturity at around four years for females and six years for males.^[138] Females reach their adult size at 4 or 5 years of age while males are fully grown at twice that age.^[139]

Mortality

Polar bears can live up to 30 years.^[10] The bear’s long lifespan and ability to consistently produce young offsets cub deaths in a population. Some cubs die in the dens or the womb if the female is not in good condition. Nevertheless, the female has a chance to produce a surviving litter the next spring if she can eat better in the coming year. Cubs will eventually starve if their mothers cannot kill enough prey.^[140] Cubs also face threats from wolves^[141] and adult male bears. Males kill cubs to bring their mother back into estrus but also kill young outside the breeding season for food.^[107] A female and her cubs can flee from the slower male. If the male can get close to a cub, the mother may try to fight him off, sometimes at the cost of her life.^[142]

Subadult bears, who are independent but not quite mature, have a particularly rough time as they are not as successful hunters as adults. Even when they do succeed, their kill will likely be stolen by a larger bear. Hence subadults have to scavenge and are often underweight and at risk of starvation. At adulthood, polar bears have a high survival rate, though adult males suffer injuries from fights over mates.^[143] Polar bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism.^[144]

Conservation status

Main article: Polar bear conservation

In 2015, the IUCN Red List categorized the polar bear as vulnerable because of a “decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of habitat”. It estimated the total population to be between 22,000 and 31,000, and the current population trend is unknown. Threats to polar bear populations include climate change, pollution and energy development.^[2]

In 2021, the IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group labelled four subpopulations (Barents and Chukchi Sea, Foxe Basin and Gulf of Boothia) as “likely stable”, two (Kane Basin and M’Clintock Channel) as “likely increased” and three (Southern Beaufort Sea, Southern and Western Hudson Bay) as “likely decreased” over specific periods between the 1980s and 2010s. The remaining ten did not have enough data.^[57] A 2008 study predicted two-thirds of the world’s polar bears may disappear by 2050, based on the reduction of sea ice, and only one population would likely survive in 50 years.^[146] A 2016 study projected a likely decline in polar bear numbers of more than 30 percent over three generations. The study concluded that declines of more than 50 percent are much less likely.^[147] A 2012 review suggested that polar bears may become regionally extinct in southern areas by 2050 if trends continue, leaving the Canadian Archipelago and northern Greenland as strongholds.^[148] A 2020 study concluded that a worst-case scenario pathway would lead to the majority of subpopulations disappearing by 2100, while an intermediate pathway would still see the extirpation of some subpopulations within the same time period.^[149]

The key danger from climate change is malnutrition or starvation due to habitat loss. Polar bears hunt seals on the sea ice, and rising temperatures cause the ice to melt earlier in the year, driving the bears to shore before they have built sufficient fat reserves to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall. Thinner sea ice tends to break more easily, which makes it more difficult for polar bears to access seals. Insufficient nourishment leads to lower reproductive rates in adult females and lower survival rates in cubs and juvenile bears. Lack of access to seals also causes bears to find food on land which increases the risk of conflict with humans.^[62]^[148] A 2024 study concluded that greater consumption of terrestrial foods during the longer warm periods are unlikely to provide enough nourishment, increasing the risk of starvation during ice-free periods. Subadult bears would be particularly vulnerable.^[150]

Reduction in sea ice cover also forces bears to swim longer distances, which further depletes their energy stores and occasionally leads to drowning. Increased ice mobility may result in less stable sites for dens or longer distances for mothers travelling to and from dens on land. Thawing of permafrost would lead to more fire-prone roofs for bears denning underground. Less snow may affect insulation while more rain could cause more cave-ins.^[62]^[148] The maximum corticosteroid-binding capacity of corticosteroid-binding globulin in polar bear serum correlates with stress in polar bears, and this has increased with climate warming.^[151] Disease-causing bacteria and parasites would flourish more readily in a warmer climate.^[148]

Oil and gas development also affects polar bear habitat. The Chukchi Sea Planning Area of northwestern Alaska, which has had many drilling leases, was found to be an important site for non-denning female bears.^[152] Oil spills are also a risk. A 2018 study found that ten percent or less of prime bear habitat in the Chukchi Sea is vulnerable to a potential spill, but a spill at full reach could impact nearly 40 percent of the polar bear population.^[153] Polar bears accumulate high levels of persistent organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) and chlorinated pesticides, because of their position at the top of the ecological pyramid. Many of these chemicals have been internationally banned as a result of the recognition of their harm to the environment. Traces of them have slowly dwindled in polar bears but persist and have even increased in some populations.^[154]

Polar bears receive some legal protection in all the countries they inhabit. The species has been labelled as threatened under the US Endangered Species Act since 2008,^[155] while the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada listed it as of ‘Special concern’ since 1991.^[156] In 1973, the Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears was signed by all five nations with polar bear populations, Canada, Denmark (of which Greenland is an autonomous territory), Russia (then USSR), Norway and the US. This banned most harvesting of polar bears, allowed indigenous hunting using traditional methods, and promoted the preservation of bear habitat.^[157] The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna lists the species under Appendix II,^[3] which allows regulated trade.^[158]

Relationship with humans

Polar bears have coexisted and interacted with circumpolar peoples for millennia.^[159] “White bears” are mentioned as commercial items in the Japanese book Nihon Shoki in the seventh century. It is not clear if these were polar bears or white-coloured brown bears.^[160] During the Middle Ages, Europeans considered white bears to be a novelty and were more familiar with brown- and black-coloured bears.^[161] The first known written account of the polar bear in its natural environment is found in the 13th-century anonymous Norwegian text Konungs skuggsjá, which mentions that “the white bear of Greenland wanders most of the time on the ice of the sea, hunting seals and whales and feeding on them” and says the bear is “as skillful a swimmer as any seal or whale”.^[162]

Over the next centuries, several European explorers would mention polar bears and describe their habits.^[163]^[164] Such accounts became more accurate after the Enlightenment, and both living and dead specimens were brought back. Nevertheless, some fanciful reports continued, including the idea that polar bears cover their noses during hunts. A relatively accurate drawing of a polar bear is found in Henry Ellis‘s work A Voyage to Hudson’s Bay (1748).^[165] Polar bears were formally classified as a species by Constantine Phipps after his 1773 voyage to the Arctic. Accompanying him was a young Horatio Nelson, who was said to have wanted to get a polar bear coat for his father but failed in his hunt.^[9] In his 1785 edition of Histoire Naturelle, Comte de Buffon mentions and depicts a “sea bear”, clearly a polar bear, and “land bears”, likely brown and black bears. This helped promote ideas about speciation. Buffon also mentioned a “white bear of the forest”, possibly a Kermode bear.^[166]

Exploitation

Further information: Bear hunting

Polar bears were hunted as early as 8,000 years ago, as indicated by archaeological remains at Zhokhov Island in the East Siberian Sea. The oldest graphic depiction of a polar bear shows it being hunted by a man with three dogs. This rock art was among several petroglyphs found at Pegtymel in Siberia and dates from the fifth to eighth centuries. Before access to firearms, native people used lances, bows and arrows and hunted in groups accompanied by dogs. Though hunting typically took place on foot, some people killed swimming bears from boats with a harpoon. Polar bears were sometimes killed in their dens. Killing a polar bear was considered a rite of passage for boys in some cultures. Native people respected the animal and hunts were subject to strict rituals.^[167] Bears were harvested for the fur, meat, fat, tendons, bones and teeth.^[168]^[169] The fur was worn and slept on, while the bones and teeth were made into tools. For the Netsilik, the individual who finally killed the bear had the right to its fur while the meat was passed to all in the party. Some people kept the cubs of slain bears.^[170]

Norsemen in Greenland traded polar bear furs in the Middle Ages.^[171] Russia traded polar bear products as early as 1556, with Novaya Zemlya and Franz Josef Land being important commercial centres. Large-scale hunting of bears at Svalbard occurred since at least the 18th century, when no less than 150 bears were killed each year by Russian explorers. In the next century, more Norwegians were harvesting the bears on the island. From the 1870s to the 1970s, around 22,000 of the animals were hunted in total. Over 150,000 polar bears in total were either killed or captured in Russia and Svalbard, from the 18th to the 20th century. In the Canadian Arctic, bears were harvested by commercial whalers especially if they could not get enough whales. The Hudson’s Bay Company is estimated to have sold 15,000 polar bear coats between the late 19th century and early 20th century.^[172] In the mid-20th century, countries began to regulate polar bear harvesting, culminating in the 1973 agreement.^[157]

Polar bear meat was commonly eaten as rations by explorers and sailors in the Arctic, to widely varying appraisal. Some have called it too coarse and strong-smelling to eat, while others have praised it as a “royal dish”.^[173] The liver was known for being too toxic to eat. This is due to the accumulation of vitamin A from the bears’ prey.^[174] Polar bear fat was also used in lamps when other fuel was unavailable.^[173] Polar bear rugs were almost ubiquitous on the floors of Norwegian churches by the 13th and 14th centuries. In more modern times, classical Hollywood actors would pose on bearskin rugs, notably Marilyn Monroe. Such images often had sexual connotations.^[175]

Conflicts

Further information: Bear danger and Bear attack

Road sign warning about the presence of polar bears. The Norwegian text translates into “Applies to all of Svalbard”.

When the sea ice melts, polar bears, particularly subadults, conflict with humans over resources on land.^[176] They are attracted to the smell of human-made foods, particularly at garbage dumps and may be shot when they encroach on private property.^[177] In Churchill, Manitoba, local authorities maintain a “polar bear jail” where nuisance bears are held until the sea ice freezes again.^[178] Climate change has increased conflicts between the two species.^[176] Over 50 polar bears swarmed a town in Novaya Zemlya in February 2019, leading local authorities to declare a state of emergency.^[179]

From 1870 to 2014, there were an estimated 73 polar bear attacks on humans, which led to 20 deaths. The majority of attacks were by hungry males, typically subadults, while female attacks were usually in defence of the young. In comparison to brown and American black bears, attacks by polar bears were more often near and around where humans lived. This may be due to the bears getting desperate for food and thus more likely to seek out human settlements. As with the other two bear species, polar bears are unlikely to target more than two people at once. Though popularly thought of as the most dangerous bear, the polar bear is no more aggressive to humans than other species.^[180]

Captivity

The polar bear was for long a particularly sought-after species for exotic animal collectors, since it was relatively rare and remote living and had a reputation as a ferocious beast.^[181] It is one of the few marine mammals that will reproduce well in captivity.^[182] They were originally kept only by royals and elites. The Tower of London got a polar bear as early as 1252 under King Henry III. In 1609, James VI and I of Scotland, England and Ireland was given two polar bear cubs by the sailor Jonas Poole, who got them during a trip to Svalbard.^[183] At the end of the 17th century, Frederick I of Prussia housed polar bears in menageries with other wild animals. He had their claws and canines removed to allow them to perform mock fights safely. Around 1726, Catherine I of Russia gifted two polar bears to Augustus II the Strong of Poland, who desired them for his animal collection.^[184] Later, polar bears were displayed to the public in zoos and circuses.^[185] In early 19th century, the species was exhibited at the Exeter Exchange in London, as well as menageries in Vienna and Paris. The first zoo in North America to exhibit a polar bear was the Philadelphia Zoo in 1859.^[186]

Polar bear exhibits were innovated by Carl Hagenbeck, who replaced cages and pits with settings that mimicked the animal’s natural environment. In 1907, he revealed a complex panoramic structure at the Tierpark Hagenbeck Zoo in Hamburg consisting of exhibits made of artificial snow and ice separated by moats. Different polar animals were displayed on each platform, giving the illusion of them living together. Starting in 1975, Hellabrunn Zoo in Munich housed its polar bears in an exhibit which consisted of a glass barrier, a house, concrete platforms mimicking ice floes and a large pool. Inside the house were maternity dens, and rooms for the staff to prepare and store the food. The exhibit was connected to an outdoor yard for extra room. Similar naturalistic and “immersive” exhibits were opened in the early 21st century, such as the “Arctic Ring of Life” at the Detroit Zoo and Ontario’s Cochrane Polar Bear Habitat.^[187]^[188] Many zoos in Europe and North America have stopped keeping polar bears because of the size and costs of their complex exhibits.^[189] In North America, the population of polar bears in zoos reached its zenith in 1975 with 229 animals and declined in the 21st century.^[190]

Polar bears have been trained to perform in circuses. Bears in general, being large, powerful, easy to train and human-like in form, were widespread in circuses, and the white coat of polar bears made them particularly attractive. Circuses helped change the polar bear’s image from a fearsome monster to something more comical. Performing polar bears were used in 1888 by Circus Krone in Germany and later in 1904 by the Bostock and Wombwell Menagerie in England. Circus director Wilhelm Hagenbeck trained up to 75 polar bears to slide into a large tank through a chute. He began performing with them in 1908 and they had a particularly well-received show at the Hippodrome in London. Other circus tricks performed by polar bears involved tightropes, balls, roller skates and motorcycles. One of the most famous polar bear trainers in the second half of the twentieth century was the East German Ursula Böttcher, whose small stature contrasted with that of the large bears. Starting in the late 20th century, most polar bear acts were retired and the use of these bears for the circus is now prohibited in the US.^[191]

Several captive polar bears gained celebrity status in the late 20th and early 21st century, notably Knut of the Berlin Zoological Garden, who was rejected by his mother and had to be hand-reared by zookeepers. Another bear, Binky of the Alaska Zoo in Anchorage, became famous for attacking two visitors who got too close.^[192]^[193] Captive polar bears may pace back and forth, a stereotypical behaviour. In one study, they were recorded to have spent 14 percent of their days pacing.^[194] Gus of the Central Park Zoo was prescribed Prozac by a therapist for constantly swimming in his pool.^[195] To reduce stereotypical behaviours, zookeepers provide the bears with enrichment items to trigger their play behaviour.^[196] In sufficiently warm conditions, algae concentrated in the medulla of their fur’s guard hairs may cause zoo polar bears to appear green.^[197]

Cultural significance

Further information: Cultural depictions of bears

Ivory carving of a swimming polar bear from the Dorset culture, northern Canada

The coat of arms of Greenland

Polar bears have prominent roles in Inuit culture and religion. The deity Torngarsuk is sometimes imagined as a giant polar bear. He resides underneath the sea floor in an underworld of the dead and has power over sea creatures. Kalaallit shamans would worship him through singing and dancing and were expected to be taken by him to the sea and consumed if he considered them worthy. Polar bears were also associated with the goddess Nuliajuk who was responsible for their creation, along with other sea creatures. It is believed that shamans could reach the Moon or the bottom of the ocean by riding on a guardian spirit in the form of a polar bear. Some folklore involves people turning into or disguising themselves as polar bears by donning their skins or the reverse, with polar bears removing their skins. In Inuit astronomy, the Pleiades star cluster is conceived of as a polar bear trapped by dogs while Orion’s Belt, the Hyades and Aldebaran represent hunters, dogs and a wounded bear respectively.^[198]

Nordic folklore and literature have also featured polar bears. In The Tale of Auðun of the West Fjords, written around 1275, a poor man named Auðun spends all his money on a polar bear in Greenland, but ends up wealthy after giving the bear to the king of Denmark.^[199] In the 14th-century manuscript Hauksbók, a man named Odd kills and eats a polar bear that killed his father and brother. In the story of The Grimsey Man and the Bear, a mother bear nurses and rescues a farmer stuck on an ice floe and is repaid with sheep meat. 18th-century Icelandic writings mention the legend of a “polar bear king” known as the bjarndýrakóngur. This beast was depicted as a polar bear with “ruddy cheeks” and a unicorn-like horn, which glows in the dark. The king could understand when humans talk and was considered to be very astute.^[200] Two Norwegian fairy tales, “East of the Sun and West of the Moon” and “White-Bear-King-Valemon“, involve white bears turning into men and seducing women.^[201]

Drawings of polar bears have been featured on maps of the northern regions. Possibly the earliest depictions of a polar bear on a map is the Swedish Carta marina of 1539, which has a white bear on Iceland or “Islandia”. A 1544 map of North America includes two polar bears near Quebec. Notable paintings featuring polar bears include François-Auguste Biard‘s Fighting Polar Bears (1839) and Edwin Landseer‘s Man Proposes, God Disposes (1864). Polar bears have also been filmed for cinema. An Inuit polar bear hunt was shot for the 1932 documentary Igloo, while the 1974 film The White Dawn filmed a simulated stabbing of a trained bear for a scene. In the film The Big Show (1961), two characters are killed by a circus polar bear. The scenes were shot using animal trainers instead of the actors. In modern literature, polar bears have been characters in both children’s fiction, like Hans Beer’s Little Polar Bear and the Whales and Sakiasi Qaunaq’s The Orphan and the Polar Bear, and fantasy novels, like Philip Pullman‘s His Dark Materials series. In radio, Mel Blanc provided the vocals for Jack Benny‘s pet polar bear Carmichael on The Jack Benny Program.^[202] The polar bear is featured on flags and coats of arms, like the coat of arms of Greenland, and in many advertisements, notably for Coca-Cola since 1922.^[203]

As charismatic megafauna, polar bears have been used to raise awareness of the dangers of climate change. Aurora the polar bear is a giant marionette created by Greenpeace for climate protests.^[204] The World Wide Fund for Nature has sold plush polar bears as part of its “Arctic Home” campaign.^[205] Photographs of polar bears have been featured in National Geographic and Time magazines, including ones of them standing on ice floes, while the climate change documentary and advocacy film An Inconvenient Truth (2006) includes an animated bear swimming.^[204] Automobile manufacturer Nissan used a polar bear in one of its commercials, hugging a man for using an electric car.^[206] To make a statement about global warming, in 2009 a Copenhagen ice statue of a polar bear with a bronze skeleton was purposely left to melt in the sun.^[207]

March 20, 2025